Indian fashion

Ancient Indian Costume

GUPTAS . . .
Gupta Period [Early Fourth to Mid-Eighth Centuary A.D.]

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History and Social Life
The Gupta empire was founded in northern India at the beginning of the fourth century AD after a long period of chaos which ensued when the Kushan empire ended in the middle of the third century. In the interim period a number of new peoples and states emerged about whom there is very little historical record. It is only with the foundation of Gupta Empire, that there was once again unity and peace over almost the whole of North India.

The Gupta empire lasted for more than two centuries and was vast: it stretched over the major part of north India and to Balkh in the east. In the west, the Guptas totally defeated the foreign invaders, the Sakas, who had been ruling Gujarat for more than 200 years. Known as the ‘Golden Age’ and the ‘Classical Period’, in the age of the Guptas a degree of balance and harmony in all the arts and an efficient system of administration was achieved.

Fa-hein, a Chinese Buddhist monk who travelled in India, wrote an account of his travels in which he noted the peacefulness of India, the rarity of serious crimes, and the benevolence of the administration. Most Indians, except the lowest castes and untouchables practiced vegetarianism. Hinduism was widespread although Buddhism still flourished.

Chronologically, the Gupta period includes the reign of Harsha of Kanauj (AD 606-647) who revived the glory of the empire after the invasions of the White Huns. Neither Harsha nor the Guptas had ever been able to conquer the south, where the Pallavas and chalukyas took over from the Satavahanas. With the Kushans there had been a great deal of influence from the western world because of the dominance of the Roman empire, but now that the latter had collapsed, India was more isolated and purely Indian ideals were being expressed and even exported to the Far East and South Asia where more contacts had been made through trade and religion.

In the Deccan, it was the Vakatakas and not the Guptas who ruled from the first half of the fifth century to the seventh century, and after them the Chalukya King Pulakesin II (AD 609-642) came to power. This region and period has been included under the section of Gupta costume had penetrated into the Deccan and most of north India.

In the previous periods, evidence of costume was derived mainly from sculptures, but in this period the wall paintings of Ajanta most vividly mirror contemporary life and dress.



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Costume Man
In this period there was a marked preference for the stitched garment, as compared to any previous age, and clearly defined garments for north India and the Deccan began to emerge, which later crystallized into the garment preference we see in India today. With the Kushans, the stitched garment had gained in status and it was now linked to royalty, for the Kushan Kings and their nobles had rules a large part of India and Central Asia for more than a 100 years. The Gupta Kings realized the value of adopting a dress that had traditionally become identified with royalty. They are shown on Gupta coins in full Kushan dress, that is, the coat, trousers and boots. They continued, however, to wear the indigenous antaryia, uttariya and kayabandh for normal occasions.

Many forms of cut-and-sewn garments became fashionable, especially at court. These garments were not totally foreign to the Indians. Changes had been occurring gradually and the indigenous kancuka, associated with guardians and attendants of the harem in earlier times, probably inspired the brocaded tunic with long or short sleeves worn by ministers, guards, door-keepers, and court attendants. Just as often is seen a simpler version, the white calf-length tunic which the chamberlain wore, a chaddar adding dignity to his attire. The lower garment was usually the antariya and with it was sometimes worn kancuka, which could be tucked in like a shirt. The kayabandh was used to hold the garments in place. The ushnisa (turban) was slowly becoming obsolete, and was now associated mainly with certain dignitaries, ministers and other officials.

Foreigners at court were a common sight as trade and commercial intercourse between India and Persia in this period was at its height. Persia’s influence on Indian art is most clearly seen in the rich floating ribbon decoration, which was in fashion at the Persian court of Khusrau II (AD 600).

In northern India where climatic conditions were more suitable there was greater emphasis on the stitched garments, but in the south, as is apparent even today, the indigenous antariya, uttariya and kayabandh held their own. Strangely enough, although royalty on the Gupta coins is shown wearing the sewn garment of the Kushan Kings, in the Ajanta paintings the king and other members of the nobility are still seen in their fine silk or muslin antariyas.

The king’s costume was most often of striped blue closely woven silk with a floating uttariya. Both these garments invariably had woven borders. Instead of kayabandh a plain cord or belt became more popular, wound once or twice around and then buckled or knotted in a variety of ways to secure the antariya. Sometimes the uttariya itself was twisted thickly and worn aslant the waist with a large knot at the left shoulder. It was the elaborate mukuta (crown) and exquisite jewellery that really set apart kings and high dignitaries from other members of royal entourage. Some scholars believe that these elaborate mukuta were never actually used, but were merely signs of divinity or royalty.

Costume Woman
In the case of male costume it is easier to trace the influence, which came mainly from the invaders and traders. In female costume, however, the variety is much grater and hence it is more difficult to pin-point the exact sources.

The antariya, which was 18-36 inch wide and 4-8 yards long, was worn in several different ways. The short or long antariya was worn in the kachcha style or as a lehnga, in which case it was first wrapped around the right hip then around the body and tucked in at the left hip. It was drawn very tight across in the hips accentuating their curve most seductively, and was normally calf-length. Another form of the antariya was worn in the Kachcha and lehnga style together. This was usually a very short antariya only up to mid-thigh called calanika. It was drawn first in kachcha style, the longer end of the three yard long material was then wrapped around like a short lehnga. A common form was a skimpy antariya made of cheap linen worn mainly by lower classes. Normally the nobility wore the ankle-length antariya and women of high rank, attendant usually wore the shorter form. But in all cases it was tied under the navel and supported by the hip bones.

The antariya was occasionally worn like the Indonesian sarong- a wide garment reaching from under the armpits to mid-thigh in a simple wraparound fashion. The main difference in the Gupta period, as distinct from the previous periods, is that the kachcha style became less popular with women, being replaced gradually by the more feminine lehnga or lungi was we call it today, although the queen and other ladies of the royal family remained conservative. This conservative kachcha style is still adopted by the women of Maharashtra and South India.

The skirt, bhairnivasani, evolved from the antariya which when stitched on one side became tabular and was worn gathered together at the waist, and held by a girdle. This was one of the earliest forms of a clumsily stitched skirt and used as early as the Early Bronze period by the Germanic race. The bhairnivasani was first used by the Jain and Buddhist nuns, and arose from the idea that a woman’s body was sinful and had to be covered. Also, the kachcha and the lehnga style were considered too seductive as they entailed the antariya to be pulled tightly across the hips. With the Jain sect in particular, an extraordinary amount of clothing was worn by the nuns to completely hide the shape of the female form. From the bhairnivasani evolved the skirt with the drawstring or nada, called ghagri. The ghagri was a narrow skirt six feet long- the same length as original antariya. It was worn mainly by village women, and was very attractive since the border of the cloth was used vertically in the centre to decorate it.

A heavily gathered skirt, an elaboration on the ghagri probably introduced by foreigners, is also seen. It seems to be mainly used by dancers, so that the swirling effect is enhanced by its many folds, which may have been gored. The skirt is still worn by mainly rural peoples, including the Lambadi and Banjara gypsies of India.

Women wore langoti type drawers, the ardhoruka, which had evolved from the needs of modesty. This was a short strip of cloth worn around the waist with an attached piece from the centre of the waist, which was drawn up between the legs and tucked in behind. Like the bhairnivasani this too was an early garment originally used by women ascetics. Jain nuns wore four of these ardhorukas one on top of another, something like the medieval ‘chastity belt’.

It would be interesting to find a satisfactory answer as to why, at this particular juncture, Indian women frequently began to clothe the top half their bodies. For many centuries before, they had moved around self consciously nude above waist. There were probably two reasons. One was that the female attendants in the King’s court thrown into the company of beautiful foreigners who wore upper garments, must have realized that covering the bosom could even be more attractive than exposing it, and accordingly emulated the dress style of the foreigners. Also, with the impact of Buddhism, Jainsm, and Christianity the belief that the body was sinful and must be concealed to avoid temptation was percolating through India, In medieval Europe, around this time, similar changes were occurring in female clothing, and women began covering themselves from head to foot.

The breast-band had been used since Vedic times, as with Greeks, mainly as a support for breasts rather than covers them. There was in addition to the breast-band, an indigenous stitched garment known as cholaka, chola, choli, cholika and kancholika, which is mentioned in early Sanskrit literature. The primitive choli was cut very simply from a square piece of cloth, with a slit for the neck. This was also the early form used as protection by the women of the Germanic or Teutonic races in the Early Bronze age. This evolution from the unstitched to the stitched garments had an inescapable logic as it evolved for purely functional purposes. In the case of the Germanic races it was protection from the cold, and in India it served the purpose of modesty.

A further development of the choli was the fold back at the bottom edge and the introduction of string, attached to make it back less, very like the garments worn today by women in Rajasthan and elsewhere. The apron-like attachment at the front of the choli, visible in some of the frescoes, could have evolved from the need for protection against the cold for the front part of the body, as the back was normally covered by the head-veil, or as a modesty covering over the stomach which was exposed, the skirt or lehnga being worn below the navel. Here again the back was covered by the head-veil.

Another choli, which ends just above the waist, is made of diaphanous material and seen particularly in the dress of princesses and other royal ladies. This choli appears to be fastened in front, probably knotted, as in the case with certain cholis in use today. This would cover the back completely, but expose most of the midriff in front. The Persian shirt or kurta, with its side-opening at the neck, slit sides and four-poted hemline had become thoroughly Indianised and was commonly used even by women. Another style of the kurta was with crossover flaps and side-opening in the angarkha style. Ankle-length fitted tunics in brocade still appear foreign and may have been a Turanian Tartar (a nomadic race of Mongolian stock from Central Asia) contribution to the fashions at court.

The uttariya remained, but was worn very sheer and more as flattering accessory, rather than as the substantial article of clothing it had once been. It is normally seen in Ajanta, delicately wafting behind, like the floating ribbon decoration, which was also in fashion at the Persian court at this time.

Headgear and Hairstyles
Simple plaits were no longer visible, and hair was so elaborately dressed at times, that the help of maid-servant who were expert hair-dressers was obviously essential. There were seemed to be broadly two styles of foreign origin, while the complicated ways of dressing long hair were mainly derived from South Indian and Deccani styles. The latter became extremely popular in the Gupta age. The use of missi to darken gums and lips, and henna to redden the palm and soles of the feet was fairly prevalent.

Of foreign origin was the short hair, which was sometimes frizzed in front with luxuriant ringlets quite unlike anything seen today, or just left hanging loose to the shoulders or lower, held by a fillet or a chaplet of flowers.

The indigenous style showed itself in long hair worn in a bun either high or low on the neck or knotted at the side of the head, or with the coil wound on the left on top of the head. The bun itself was something a simple tight knot, at other times in the shape of the figure eight, or large and loosely wound, but almost always surrounded by flowers or had large lotus blossoms tucked into it. In addition, there could be a, ratnajali, jewelled net or a net of pearls called muktajala, worn over the bun.

Tiaras were often used with short or long hair, and pearl string could define the parting of the hair, as could be jewelled band. Fillets both simple and elaborate were commonly used to hold back short hair. Turbans too had not disappeared completely and women wore them very effectively, sometimes made of brocade or striped material, and completely covering the hair.

The profuse use of flowers cannot be overemphasized in this period. Besides surrounding the bun they were used as tiaras, and in as many ways to dress the hair as could conceivably be imagined by the women wearing them. In the Deccan, hair styles of the lower classes (even those belonging to the menial orders) or the peasant women could be as elaborate as those of the higher-class women.

For men, a tiara or crown with a band inset with pearls and something festooned with garlands replaced the turban. This slowly became more common for the king when informally dressed in indigenous garments; attendants wore this as well with shoulder-length hair. On the Gupta coins, however, the king is shown in Parthian-Kushan dress and wears a skull cap or helmet as headgear. The king probably used this latter costume on formal occasions, which required military regalia, or at sports like hunting.

In royal entourage, the turban continued to be worn by high officials, like the chamberlain, ministers, military officers, civic officials and so on, where it had become a distinctive symbol of their respective ranks. It could be of fine muslin tied over a large knot of hair at the centre of the forehead or a striped turban worn flat and twisted giving a rope-like effect to the cloth when wound. The ministers were often Brahmins with all their hair shorn keeping only the ritual top knot.

Generally, hair was worn loose by men, shoulder-length and curled, in the gurnakuntala style, sometimes with a head band to hold it in place, or adorned with a strand of pearls. Very short hair was also fairly common and looked much like the hair worn today except that clear parting in the hair was seldom visible.

There were, however, fashions in the dressing of men’s hair, which was sometimes cut unevenly at the edges, giving the appearance of a wig; at other times the earlier form of a top knot was employed, but in a more decorative manner, using only a portion of the hair, the rest hanging in curls to the shoulder.

Jewellery
Gold or hirana was more commonly used than ever before, especially in the Deccan where there were gold mines. Gold ornaments for both men and women were exquisitely made, acquiring a new delicacy as beaten work, filigree work and twisted wire was skillfully combined with jewels-particularly pearls. Kundala was the general term for earrings, which were mainly for two types, both of which were circular. One was a large ring type and other was a button type, karnaphul, with a plain or decorated surface. The bali, a small gold wire circlet worn on the upper part of the ear with pearls strung on it, or two pearls and one emerald,is still popular. Large ring-type earring later developed pendants that shook with the movements of the head and were called kancuka-kundala or ‘tremulous earring’.

The sutra was a chain for the neck. When made of gold with precious stones in the centre, it was called hemasutra. But this was the era of the pearls necklaces or muktavali a single strand of small pearls was the haravsti, one of big pearls, the tarahara, and one with gem in the centre of the pearl was known as sudha ekavali. However, it was the glorious vijayantika, a necklace made from a successive series of pearls, rubies, emeralds, blue stones and diamonds, that was most sought after. The nishka or coin necklace also continued to be popular.

Upper arm ornaments were known as the angada and keyura, the former like a coiled snake, and the latter, a cylinder made of filigree work or inset with pearls. Bracelets, valaya were generally simple or inset with pearls. Bangles of conch shell or ivory were worn in set graded sizes, like those used by primitive and folk people today. Finger rings, anguliya were of gold or studded with precious stones, ratnanguliya. Tiaras-kirita and crown-mukuta were worn by men and women of the nobility and were particularly splendid, often having pearls suspended from them so as to delicately surround the face. All the above ornaments were common to both men and women. These were jewelled girdles, anklets, and an attractive ornament of two strings of pearls or flowers, worn crosswise on the chest and back, in the vaikaksha style. It was sometimes held by a clasp at the centre. A very provocative garter-like ornament, the pada-patra, was sometimes worn by women on the upper part of the thigh. This ornament could be quite decorative with festoons of pearls and other ornamentation.

The mekhala or girdle was worn by women quite low on the hips and suspended from the katisutra. The latter was probably a string tied at the waist and hidden under the upper edge of the antariya, in which it was rolled. The mekhala hung in a seductive clasp at the centre from this string, over or under which hung a small pleated frill of cloth. This is still seen in the Bharata Natyam dancer’s costume of today. Men to hold the antariya used a simple straight belt or sometimes above it, which could have a buckle either square, round, rosette-shaped, or rectangular.

On the women’s ankles the kinkini, with its small bells, tinkled as they moved, or there nupura (anklet) could be made from jewelled beads, maninupura. Although women of all classes wore anklets, they are not seen on the feet of goddesses in sculpture.

Flowers in the form of necklaces, mala, were worn on the head, entwined in the hair, and looped around the neck or waist or worn crosswise in garlands on the chest. The mala was usually made of fragrant kadamba flowers. Kings wore chaplets of white flowers even on military expeditions and officials of state tucked a bunch of flowers into their top knots. Women loved to decorate themselves with flowers as well, and wreaths of scented flowers hung from their ears. Their brows were also adorned with wreaths and heavy garlands of amarnath hung on their hips.

Military Costume
In previous centuries, except occasionally in the Satavahana age, there was no fixed uniform for the indigenous army. It was the Kushan army, well clad and equipped, that became the prototype on which the new military uniform of the Guptas was based. The king himself adopted the Kushan royal costume in formal occasions as status symbol. In early period the Gupta soldier had worn the antariya with his bare chest inadequately covered by the six jewel-striped channavira. This evolved into the more efficient foreign-influenced kancuka with trousers or short drawers, jhangia, and high boots, with a helmet or cap, and sometimes a fillet to tie back the hair.

Later the soldier’s uniform was either a short-or-long-sleeved knee-length tunic, kancuka, which had a centre front opening with V-shaped or round neck. The tunics were sometimes spotted with black aloe wood paste, which could be a type of tie-dye, or bandhni as it is known today. This may have been their version of the camouflage on military uniforms. It is possible that these tunics were worn over a brief antariyas, as the foot soldiers seldom wore trousers to cover their bare legs. Instead of knee-length kancuka a short tight-fitting blouse, cholaka, was sometimes worn with the short antariya. Around the waist, the kayabandh could be wound once or twice, holding a short dagger or curved sword. Shields were curved or rectangular, the former sometimes decorated with a dragon’s head. Some soldiers continued to wear only the short antariya, which was often striped, and with this indigenous garment the wheel-type disc earring were still worn. Head-dresses were normally a simple skull cap or just a scarf or cloth wound around the head like a turban.

The cavalry wore a more elaborate dress, closer in style to the original Parthian-Kushan dress being a mid-calf length quilted coat with long ruched sleeves. With this was worn a fillet or head band, or sometimes a white turban. Others in the cavalry wore more colorful and diverse garments. Mid-thigh length tunics of brocade or printed cloth (for example, yellow with blue dots, green with checks in which a flowered motif was set in each compartment, or yellow with a pattern of birds, rosettes, lozenge shapes mainly in blue, yellow ochre or white), trousers and an uttariya-a bossed flowers, completed their very colorful uniforms.

The elephant drivers were picturesque in their short-sleeved tight-fitting cholaka with decorative bands at the neck, hem, and sleeves. With this were worn short drawers of plain or gold-striped cloth and a skull cap or scarf on the head. The king himself, when attired for battle wore a short, tight –sleeved kancuka and an elaborate turban with serpent. His bodyguard carried curved swords like the Nepalese khukri and shields of rhinoceros hide in checked designs. His sword-bearer wore a patterned tight tunic with pointed ends reaching to the knees, and the kayabandh wound twice around the waist.

The leaders or chieftains of the various contingents in the army were decked in pearl-embroidered tunics made from the famous stavarkha cloth of Sassanian origin and chaddars of many colors, or in the complete Central Asian outfit consisting of a dark blue quilted tunics with a V-shaped neck and long full sleeves with soft dark trousers and a saffron turban of Indian origin instead of Central Asian conical cap.

Armour was worn as further protection. It was known as the cinacola, probably of Chinese origin. It was sleeveless covering the front and back, and was made of metal. A helmet for soldiers was known as sirastrajala. Bows were of two kinds: the simple one-piece bow and the classic double-curved bow probably made of three pieces.

Religious Persons
The Hindu sanyasi, by the Gupta period had slowly given up his bark-strip garments and adopted red ochre robes, very similar to those of the Buddhist monk. It is from this period in history that there is a marked resemblance in the appearance of Hindu sanyasis and Buddhist monks. Earlier there had been marked differences. The red ochre uttariya of the sanyasi was tied into the vaikaksha style (crossed over the chest), or a tattered rag of same color knotted over the heart and a deerskin was occasionally worn over the left shoulder. A loincloth of the same red ochre color, sometimes held up by a black leather belt, completed his costume. Later on, a stitched garment, either a robe or a patched tunic replaced this costume. The hair was normally matted and worn in a top knot tied with a cord or a fillet across the forehead, at times with the formidable emblem of a skull affixed to it. The matted hair took on a yellowish tinge due to ashes being rubbed into it, and appeared bleached from exposure to the sun.

The Brahmin acharya (teacher) normally wore a short antariya and uttariya; the latter could be of narrow strips stitched together. His head covering consisted of a kantopa (cap) over his top knot.

The Buddhist monk (bhikku) and nun (bhikkuni) now wore linen or silk. The poorer ones dyed their red or yellow linen garments inexpensively, in a dye made from dates, red earth, red stone powder or wild pear. The monks wore a samghati (double cloak), uttarasanga (upper garment), and antarvasa (lower garment). The antravasa, 36 inches wide and 2½ yards long, was wound round the waist where a girdle secured it. Both the girdle and inner cloth had subtle differences in the way they were worn by each sect. The samghati was a 21/2 yards square with a five-finger wide strip attached at the neck. This had a drawstring through it, which was tied, at the chest. When the weather was particularly cold both Buddhist monks and laymen wore a quilted garment called hi-pa, which covered the front of the body and went over the left shoulder and across the back, being fixed in position under the arm at the right side, something like the deer or antelopes skins which were used by religious orders in the past of protection.

The nuns wore the same garments as the monks, only their antariya, was stitched together at the edges to form a skirt, and was 36 inches wide and 72 inches long. This was gathered and tied at the waist. After adolescence the nuns covered their breasts. Besides these three garments, both monks and nuns were allowed to have two pair of undergarments, a mat and towels.

Jain monks had to wear totally unstitched white linen or cotton garments, which were not to be cut or joined; this meant they were specially woven to specifications. Their chaddar, antariya and kayabandh could occasionally be made from camel’s hair, jute, and even bare fiber. Very rarely was silk allowed its use being generally discouraged. The kayabandh could not be more than four fingers wide. For Jain nuns, the rules were even more specific and the number of garments they wore was astonishing. The large number was designed to conceal the shape of the body as much as possible. Four different langoti types of drawers, the ardhoruka, were worn one over the other to cover the lower parts of the body. Over this was worn the lehnga or skirt known as bhairnivasani which was not to be drawn tightly over the hips and was held by a string and not a kayabandh at the waist, as the latter was considered too fashionable. The breasts were covered by a length of cloth 1¼ yards by 18 inches approximately. This was wrapped tightly around and fixed at the side. The aupakaksiki was 27 inches square and covered a part of the chest and back, and was tied over the left shoulder: the vaikaksiki, absolutely similar, was worn in the opposite direction and tied at the right shoulder. It is not difficult to imagine how shapeless and unattractive the whole ensemble must have been. Finally there was the samghati or double cloak. Each nun was allowed four of these in different widths from 1 to 4 yards and each about 2 yards long. Each cloak was to be worn on specific occasion, and the one, which was 1½yards wide, was to be used only in the toilet. In addition, a large square shawl of 2 yards was used during particularly bad weather. Jain nuns or monks did not wear shoes.

Textiles and Dyes
In the Gupta age the finest textiles were available, printed, painted, dyed, and richly patterned in weaves or embroidery. the art of calico printing improved considerably and many of the traditional prints of today originated in this period. There were checks, stripes, and bird and animal motifs, for example geese, swans, deer, elephants, and so on. Delicate embroidery on muslins, consisting of hundreds on. Delicate embroidery on muslins, consisting of hundreds of different varieties of flowers and birds, was skillfully executed, along with intricately woven brocades, which continued to be in vogue. These brocades with floral designs from the Deccan and Paithan were like the Jamiwar and Himru fabrics of today. The former is a silk floral design on a wool background and the latter has cotton for its main wrap. Gauze from Decca was noted for its transparency and was said to be so fine that the only evidence of its presence was the delicate gold edging of cloth. This had led to the further sophistication of wearing a transparent garment over a brightly colored one. Before this, the transparency of the cloth had only accentuated the nudity below.

Gold and silver woven brocades of Benares, which had a very ancient tradition, were still used, and in the north and the north-west the art of embroidery reached the highest peak of development. Silk was woven in black and white check patterns especially for cushions, which had handsome covers of, gold, silver or dark-colored cloth embroidered or patterned in silver stars or four-petalled flowers, or of striped materials with chess-patterned bands. Special bedcovers known as nicola and pracchadapata, and rugs or floor carpets known as rallaka and kambala were made.

Dyeing too was very sophisticated and the diagonal stripes, which were popular, merged in each other in places as soft and dark tones. This beautiful effect was created by the resist dye technique. Tie dying of Gujarat and Rajasthan, in many different patterns, was called pulakabandha and was used a great deal in the upper garments of women. The process of bleaching was perfected, and all thin brocades, which had been the prerogative of rich now, percolated to form the festive and bridal attire of the poorer classes, for which a special cheaper variety known, as rasimal was available.

Special costly silken fabric known as stavaraka was originally manufactured in Persia and is known to have been imported into India. This was a cloth studded with clusters of bright pearls and worn by royalty.

Style
In the highly civilized Gupta empire, we find jewelled head-dresses, and striped muslin lehngas adding to the sensuous fullness of the body and lending it a free-flowing movement. The mood is relaxed, somnolent and languorous, with sheer floating scarves and shinning radiant eyes accentuating the aura of dream-like delicacy. Pearl strands decorating the archways, and looped on diadems and around necks, further enhance the undulating movements of the graceful figures.


MAID SERVANT [Ajanta, Cave XVII]

Antariya : worn very short in kachcha style; after knotting at the centre both ends are passed between the legs, fluted and tucked in at back centre to fall to the ankles; one end has been tucked in under the mekhala and the other over it

Mukatavali : necklace of one strand of small pearls (haravsti)

Keyura : worn on the upper arms-baju, cylinderical, inset with pearls and tied on with ribbons

Valaya : bracelet of filigree work

Mekhala : girdle at the hips is decorated with discs; a small frill of cloth hangs at the side which could be part of the end of the antariya pulled around from the back after tucking in, and tucked in again at the front

Kundala : simple ring-type earrings

Nupura : anklets are simple and cylinderical

Hairstyle : hair has been drawn back into one plait, with a few curls at the forehead; a fillet is worn and also a chaplet of flowers to which a semi-circular ornament has been attached on either side of the centre parting

It is possible that she wears a short choli of very light material. She holds a fly-whisk (chauri).





PRINCESS [Ajanta, Cave I]

Lehnga : the antariya has now become the lehnga; it is held first at the right hip then taken once around the body and tucked in tightly at the left hip in pleats or simply as in this figure

Uttariya : of sheer material, thrown over the breasts

Muktavali : several pearl necklaces of small and large pearls including one long strand which hangs between the breasts

Valaya : one simple and one ornamental bracelet is worn on each wrist

Keyura : armlet of filigree work festooned with pearls on upper arms

Bali : ring-type earrings with pearls strung; a samller simple ring is worn on the upper part of the ear

Anguliya : ring worn on the little finger of the right hand

Nupura : very simple anklet

Kirita : a decorative tiara

Hairstyle : elaborate, adorned with flowers and jewels, the hair being worn in a large bun at the nape.

The stool or short-backed chair (piddha) has turned wooden legs very similar to those available in most parts of Inida today. Covering it is a pearl studded or tie-dyed cross-shaped cloth. The large cushion at the back is covered with printed cloth and the cushion used as footrest has a pearl edge.

OLD WOMAN [Ajanta, Cave XVII]

Sari : an elaongated form of the antariya, the left end is passed between the legs and tucked in at the back; the right and longer end is taken around the body and thrown over the left shoulder from the front and is visible in folds at the left

Muktavali : two strings of pearls at the neck

Valaya : simple bracelets, two at each wrist

Kundala : ring-type earrings

Hairstyle : drawn back and knotted

She is carrying a flower garland.
VOTARY FIGURE [Ajanta, Cave II]

Ardhoruka : langoti type of patterned striped drawers- a short strip of cloth worn around the waist with an attached strip from the centre of the waist which is drawn up between the legs and tucked in at the back

Choli : short blouse of diaphanous material

Vaikaksha : two long strings of pearls crossed at the chest

Muktavali : string of pearls at the neck

Kundala : large disc-type earrings

Uttariya : worn over the left shoulder

Keyura : flat simple armbands

Valaya : bracelet, one on each wrist

Nupura : anklets of simple design

Headgear : a striped scarf tied around the head and knotted at the back, tassels are visible behind the right shoulder; further back on the head is a decoration of leaves with a central motif probably tied around a chignon-type hairstyle

She carries an offering and could be of foreign origin as the scarf on the head suggests.

COURT LADY [Ajanta, Cave I]

Ghagri : the early form of a skirt to the knees in which there is a draw-string (nada); the border of the woven silk material can be seen vertically down the centre

Valaya : graded ivory or conch-shell bangles

Hara : bead necklace

Hairstyle : centre parting with chignon on nape decorated with ribbons; a wreath of leaves is worn around the head
MAID SERVANT [Ajanta, Cave XVI]

Ghagri : a simple skirt with drawstring (nada)

Pratidhi : breast-band tied at the back

Girdle : ornamented, worn over the skirt for additional support

Vijayantika : necklace of strings of looped pearls with precious stones

Keyura : armlets with incised design

Valaya : bangles and pearls bracelets

Kundala : large ring-type earrings

Hairstyle : worn shoulder-length and loose

She carries a large palm-leaf fan.

MAID SERVANT [Ajanta, Cave I]

Cholaka : choli-type blouse with an apron front and V-neck made of pulakabandha-tie and dye cloth

Anatriya : lehnga style, of striped cloth

Kundala : ring-type earrings

Valaya : simple bangles

Hairstyle : simple bun with flower wreath (mala)
DANCING GIRL [Ajanta, Cave I]

Cholaka : fitted choli-type blouse with an appron front; the long sleeves are of dark red brocade, while the middle is of white silk, probably tied at the back with ribbons that are visible

Antariya : lehnga style, is of silk with purple, green and yellow stripes with lozenge patterns in white

Mukatavali : three-stringed pearl beads

Valaya : two simple and one ornamental bangle on each wrist

Kancala Kundala : elaborate earrings with pendants

Mukuta : tiara of gold

Hairstyle : large bun at the nape with wreaths of flowers and sevral strings of pearls or gols chain (sarasari) wound around and held by brooches

MAID SERVANT [Ajanta, Cave I]

Cholaka : double jacket of bandhni (tie-dye cloth) the upper one with shorter sleeves in the angarkha style; the lower one is green in color with longer sleeves

Hara : two necklaces, both of beads with the central bead of differnt shape

Hairstyle : curly hair held back by a fillet

Appears to be foreigner as is evident from the simple hairstyle and lack of ornate jewellery. The angarkha is shown open, the left edge of the neckline fastening is curved to fit the inside right edge probably with ties as in the modren angarkha.
YASODA [Deogarh]

Angarkha : mid-thigh length tunic with left opening and bordered edge all around; it has long sleeves and a four-pointed hem in Persian style

Ghagri : heavily gathered skirt tied at the hips with a nada

Kantha : flat heavy short neckalce

Valaya : bangle on left wrist

Mukuta : tiara-like ornament at the forehead

Uttariya : worn over the head and left hanging behind the shoulders; it has a decorative border

Hairstyle : probably a thick twisted roll of padding is fixed at the centre parting and held in place by tiny plaits of hair; this is till used to hold high the head -covering by some women of north India and gives an extremely regal effect to head veil

The covering of the head with the veil is possibly of parthian/scythian origin and is seldom seen at Ajanta.

MAID [Ajanta, Cave XVI]

Angarkha : long-sleeved tunic with probably a left side-opening running down to the pointed hem

Hara : a simple chain

Kundala : large ring-type earrings

Uttariya : worn over the head and left hanging behind the shoulders in Parthian or scythian style

Hairstyle : probably a thick twisted roll of padding is fixed at the centre parting and held in place by tiny plaits of hair; this is till used to hold high the head -covering by some women of north India and gives an extremely regal effect to head veil

ATTENDANT [Ajanta, Cave I]

Robe : ankle-length in white material with a pale blue frill at the hem; it has tight sleeves and a collar; the hem of the sleeves and the edge of the collar are embroidered; there is a tiraz band trimming at the upper arm and floating ribbons at the back opening

Headgear : a round cap of red material (broad-cloth or velvet) with a white border of fur or wool and white plume at the centre

This is often reffered to as the Persian Embassy scene, but the figure appears to be a Turanian Tartar from Central Asia. Turanian Tartars were influenced in their dress by the persians, as seen in the tiraz band, floating ribbons and round cap.

KING [Ajanta, Cave XVII]

Anatriya : short and striped worn in the lehnga style with a long end visible on the cushion

Necklace : of gems with loops

Suddha Ekavali : neckalce of pearls with a central gem

Keyura : elaborate armlets with loops suspended from a cylinder of filigree work

Valaya : Ornamnetal bracelet, one on each wrist

Anguliya : ring on little finger

Kundala : elaborate earrings

Kirita : tiara of metal with ornamental discs and motifs

Silk ties on necklace are visible at the right shoulder.
MINISTER [Ajanta]

Kancuka : indigenous simple round-neck tunic with long sleeves and a front opening; probably calf-length

Uttariya : wrapped around the waist and thrown over the left shoulder in upavita fashion with the final end resting on the left arm

Bali : simple ring-type earrings with pearl suspended

Haravsti : large pearl necklace

Torque : simple necklet

Hairstyle : long hair combed back smoothly


CHAMBERLAIN [Ajanta, CaveXVII]

Kancuka : indigenous striped white tunic with long sleeves and front opening; probably calf-length

Chaddar : cloth decorated with a fish-scale pattern; worn over the left shoulder and under the right arm in upvita fashion

Torque : necklet of twisted wire with beads

Headgear : flat turban of twisted cloth held by ribbon bands at intervals, worn as a mark of office by the chamberlain
GUARD [Ajanta, Cave II]

Kancuka : mid-calf length tunic with four pointed ends, V-neck and long sleeves; the cloth is star-patterned

Trousers : gathered in churidar style

Headgear : skull cap

Kayabandh: sash tied at the waist

This Kancuka has the four-pointed hem of the Kushan-Parthian under tunic, Which was common to all scythian races including the kshatrapas. The indigenous influences is in the choice of thinner and more decorative cloth used to suit the climate conditions of India, and the rich way of life at court. The alck of jewellery would also denote a foreigner.



KING AND QUEEN [Gupta gold coin]

Chugha : close-fitting coat of the Kushans with a row of decorative buttons with fastenings at the centre; the opening in front is held together and the waist edge ends in a point at the centre

Trousers : do not appear to have creases at the knee

Headgear : close-fitting cap

Earrings : Button style

The queen is dressed in indigenous costume as seen in her antariya and uttariya, her hair is worn in a bun at the top of the head. From the Licchavi tribe, she wears nupura on the ankles.
HORSE MAN [Ajanta, Cave XVI]

Quaba : calf-length striped coat with pointed collar and tiraz band braid on upper arms; floating ribbon ties are visible at the back

Headgear : dome cap with band

Belt : worn at the waist

Probably a Turanian Tartar of Mongolian stock. Their costume is very similar to that of the persians, from whom the tiraz band trimming, pointed collar and floating ribbon ties originated. baggy trousers tucked into boots are probably worn.

FOOT SOLDIER [Ajanta, Cave XVII]

Cholaka : short jacket covering the chest with half-sleeves and a decorative braid at the hem and sleeve-edge

Antariya : short and striped material with a border

Kangan : one bracelet on each wrist

Hairstyle : shoulder length hair; wears no headgear

Equipment : spear and rectangular, curved shield of rhinoceros hide

Elephant riders and foot soldiers in the Gupta army wore a similar uniform. The were sometimes nore resplendent in gold-striped antariya and skull caps or fillets on their heads.
GUARD [Ajanta, Cave XVII]

Quaba : of foreign origin, this calf-length tunic has the Persian-type pointed collar and tiraz band braid trimming on upper arms

Girdle : worn at the waist

Kundala : disc-type earrings

Hairstyle : drawn up in a large top knot

Equipment : oval shield and curved sword

Although, the costume is foreign the hairstyle, sword and earrings are indigenous. This was probably a foreign uniform adopted by the Gupta army.


BHIKKU [Ajanta, Cave XVI]

Antaravasa : this lower garment was normally 36" wide and 2½ yards long and worn around the waist where it was secured by a girdle or tucked into the nada (drawstring)

Uttarasanga : the upper garment is thrown over the shoulder in a loop
COURT LADY [Gwalior Museum]

Hairstyle : hair is worn with a centre parting which is covered by a decorative ornament attached to the mukuta (tiara) at the forehead and the jewelled braid at the left side of the nape; the braid then continues like a fillet around the crown of the head

Mukuta : highly decorative in embossed gold or silver, has little pendants suspended from it at the forehead

Kundala : large wheel-like earrings

Haravsti : one strand of large pearls

Torque : twisted wire necklace of celtic origin

FEMALE VOTARY [Ajanta, Cave VI]

Hairstyle : hair is worn in a large pompadour style on the crown of the head with tiny curls along the forehead

Ratnajali : from the elaborate tiara-like ornament around the head, strands of pearls form a net over the hair-style; there is a central ornament at the forehead from which are suspended strands of pearls

Mala : large flowers above the ears are used as further ornamentation to the hairstyle

Kundala : very large ring-type earrings

Bali : small earrings with suspended pearls; worn higher up on the ear

Suddha Ekavali : pearl neckalce with a gem at the centre; has ribbon ties
KING [Ajanta, Cave I]

Hairstyle : short hair

Mukuta : tiara of floral motif from which pearls are looped and suspended

Bali : earrings from which separate drops of pearls and sapphires are suspended

Valaya : bracelets of different kinds at the wrists

Sutra : simple chain at the neck

He wears a brown striped silk garment. He is making an offering of lotus flowers to the Buddha on a tray which appears to be covered or painted in a design.

PRINCE [Ajanta, Cave XVII]

Hairstyle : appears to be shoulder length and loosely knotted at the nape; bound with ribbons with stylized curls at the forehead

Headgear : twisted turban in stripes or bound at intervals with braid; there are large gem-encrusted brooches at the sides and a central ornament on the top

Kundala : simple ring-type earrings

Muktavali : one-string pearl necklace
YOUNG MAN [Ajanta, Cave XVII]

Hairstyle : simple, shoulder length, drawn back without a parting and left loose; a shorter strand is seen over the ear
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------KUSHAN .
Kushan Period [130B.C. - A.D. 185] -
The Kushans established their empire in the first century AD and were contemporaneous with the Satavahana (Andhra) and western Satraps (Sakas) kingdoms during part of the second century AD...

History and Social Life
The Kushans established their empire in the first century AD and were contemporaneous with the Satavahana (Andhra) and western Satraps (Sakas) kingdoms during part of the second century AD.

Unlike the politician stability of the Mauryan empire, this period was marked by continuous changes in the boundaries of power and immense cultural and linguistic differences. The only cohesive factor was trade, which has been initiated in the Mauryan Period, as a stable government ensured communication between various parts of the empire and encouraged active internal trade. Contact was established with many parts of western Asia and the Mediterranean by means of envoys. This naturally helped foreign trade, and the influx of foreigners, Kushans, Sakas, and Indo-Greeks, gave even more impetus to trade relations with these areas.

There are two completely distinct styles in Kushan art. Gandhara, in the northern part of the empire, was built by craftsmen from eastern Rome who were employed by patrons of Buddhism. These craftsmen brought with them the Graeco-Roman style, particularly in the drapery of the sculpture, so that the Buddhists represented there were dressed in the classical Greek and Roman garments, the chiton, rimation, stola, tunica, chlamys, etc.

The second style in Kushan art was that which arose in Mathura, the southern capital of the empire. This style was a direct continuation of the native Indian schools of Bharut and Sanchi. But a clearer picture of the actual Kushan costume is seen in the sculpture at Surkh Kotal in Afganistan, the influence on style there being Parthian (eastern Iranian). The Parthians themselves were of scythic stock like the Kushans, and their costume is much the same and resembles closely the portrait of Kanishka, the great Kushan king, found at Mathura. The latter wears, in addition to his tunic and trousers, a fur-lined coat or pustin which is also seen at Surkh Kotal.

As mentioned earlier, there was no uniformity in this period and the dress of the people too varied with each region. The ordinary dress consisted as usual of an antariya, uttariya and kayabandh, with a turban for men. With the advent of the Kushans this was extended, and the fashion of wearing sewn garments of central Asiatic pattern seems to have made headway with all classes of Indians in north India. The cut-and –sewn garments, which are rarely visible in the sculptures of the previous periods, are more commonly found in this period.


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Costume
Kushan costumes may be divided into five types: the costume worn by (I) indigenous people-the antariya, uttariya, and kayabandh, (ii) guardians and attendants of the harem-usually the indigenous and sewn kancuka, red-brown in color, (iii) foreign Kushan rulers and their entourage, and (iv) other foreigners such as grooms, traders, etc. There are fifth category- a mixture of foreign and indigenous garments. This last category is of great interest as it shows how clothes changed and evolved, how some of the purely draped garments of the Indians were replaced by cut-and –sewn garments, especially in north and north-west where influences were felt more keenly, and where climatically sewn garments were more suitable.

The Kushan (Indo-scythian) dress had evolved from a nomad culture based on the use of the horse. It is seen at Mathura, Taxila, Begram, and Surkh Kotal in Afghanistan. The dress was worn by most of Scythian and Iranian races and resembled particularly that of the Parthians. It consisted of a ruched long-sleeves tunic with a slit for the neck opening, simple or elaborately decorated. The close-fitting knee-length tunic was sometimes made of leather, and with it could be worn a short cloak or a calf-length woolen coat or caftan, worn loose or crossed over from right to left and secured by a belt of leather or metal. Besides these two upper garments, occasionally a third garment the chugha was used. The chugha was coat-like and decorated with a border down the chest and hemline, and had slits to facilitate movement. The trousers could be of linen, silk or muslin in summer but were woolen or quilted in winter. These loose or close-fitting trousers, chalana, were tucked into soft padded boots with leather trappings, khapusa. Along with this was worn the scythian pointed cap of felt, bashylk, or peaked helmet or head band with two long ends tied at the back.

Although, the clothes were simple, they were often adorned with stamped gold or metal plates, square, rectangular, circular, or triangular sewn in lines or at the central seams of the tunic. Their purpose was not only decorative but functional as well, as they helped lift the tunic in the middle for riding, by gathering the cloth along the seams. This helped to give the distinctive draped effect with four sharp pointed ends at the hemline. The drape of trousers too was held in place by means of these gold or metal plates stitched down the centre front. It is interesting to note that elaborate embroidered panels later replaced these gold or metal plates. An earlier version was used by the Saka warriors, where the tunic was simply picked up and tucked into the belt on two sides at centre front, to free the spread of knees when riding a horse.

Clothes for women were varied. At Gandhara there are figures wearing a sari-like garment which seems to have evolved from palmyrene (Graeco-Roman) or pure Roman dress. This is the palla (draped – over garment worn over a long gown with ruched sleeves, which was typical of the Roman matron) pinned at the left shoulder. The difference in some of the Gandhara female figures is that they wear, in addition, an antariya, which is extended in length. This long antariya is worn in the kachcha style but one end continues over the left shoulder and is broached there like the palla.

The total ensemble looks very much like the Deccani sari of today. The long ruched sleeves are visible underneath and could be shortened version of Roman long gown (stola) worn as covering for the breasts. In addition, the typical Indian uttariya is worn across the back and over both arms, and Indian jewellery completes the ensemble. The wearing of an uttariya with the sari is still seen in the fisher-folk of Maharashtra.

These Gandhara figures are some of the most intriguing sculptures of the Kushan period, and may well show the beginning of the sari and one of the earlier attempts to create a garment to cover the breasts. This would fall under the category of a mixture of foreign and indigenous garments. In yet another female figure we find a Persian-influenced knee or mid-thigh length tunic, stanamsuka, worn with the antariya. The latter is not passed between the legs as the kachcha style, but is worn crossed-over in the lehnga style. Simple stitched skirts, ghagri, with a side seam and nada or string to hold them up at the waist are also seen. They are gathered in folds from lengths about 6-8 feet, and have a decorative border at the hem and at the centre front seam. The tunic, stanamsuka, is form-fitting with long sleeves, a simple round neckline, and flaring at the hemline. Besides the above mentioned, the lehnga style antariya and uttariya is sometimes worn. But very little in the way of elaborate jewellery is used.

There are also some figures of women wearing close fitting ruched trousers with a long-sleeved jacket and an uttariya. In the earlier period, trousers were worn by Greek and Persian women. It is said the Amazons wearing trousers formed the royal guards of the king. These females guards adapted their own phygian costume to a tight mid-thigh length jacket with crossover at the neck and a gathered or pleated skirt worn with the antariya, along with a crossed vaikaksha with metal buckle shield and sword. Servants and dancers from many parts of the world were brought into the country from a very early period in Indian history. The pravara or chaddar, a large shawl, continued to be worn by both sexes as protection against the cold and it was known to have been perfumed with bakul, jasmine and other scents. The purely indigenous antariya, uttariys and kayabandh continued to be the main costumes of Indians with slight modifications. The kayabandh became a more loosely worn informal piece of attire, and was a wide twisted sash used mainly by women in many delightful ways to enhance the suppleness of the waist.


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Headgear and Hairstyles : Women
The wearing of the uttariya on the head seems to have almost disappeared in this period and most of the women in indigenous costume are seen bare-headed. They wear their hair in a tuft at the forehead, which covers the line of parting. This tuft is in the form of a ball or disc; the rest of the hair is drawn back, folded in and held with a brooch at the nape or worn in chignon which protrudes at right angle to the neck or almost vertically upwards. Sometimes a bow of cloth is placed saucily on top of the head, and sometimes a ‘relic’ or box containing scented sandal or some other perfume paste is secured to the bun by a ribbon. At other times, a band of diadem, or twisted cord or scarf is tied around the head and over the bun.

Ratnavali, a jewelled net, and brooches and decorative hairpins continued to be worn. Turbans wound around the foreign pointed scythic cap made of striped fabrics and decorated with rows of pearls or a diadem were frequently used. A sprig of the mimosa tree tucked into the turban was said to give protection against the evil eye. If one from the asoka tree was worn, it was said to symbolize love. There is little evidence of long hair being worn loose, but when arranged it was usually in one or two plaits, sometimes joined at the tips at the back, or hanging to one side. The commoner would probably wear hers in a simple knot at the nape as is worn today.

Flowers were used to decorate the hair and chaplets of leaves are frequently seen around the high topknot of hair, especially in northwestern India. The chaplet of leaves, made of nard leaves on fabric, or else of silk of many colors and steeped in unguents, was even exported to Rome. But srajas or flower garlands were the most popular and could be of many kinds, worn at the waist, neck, or in the hair. They were sometimes supported by munja grass, reeds or cotton-plant stalks. Apart from flowers, peacock feathers, horn and bone ornaments, shells, leaves, and fruit and berries were woven together to form decorative ornaments.

Headgear and Hairstyles : Men
Men continued to wear the turban, now called mauli, as in the Mauryan-Sunga period. However, a simpler line of twisted rolls of the fabric itself is more in evidence with hardly any of the complications of intertwining the hair with the turban cloth. The knob at the centre or side of the head, around which the turban was wound to form a large protuberance, slowly disappeared. When bareheaded, the hair was worn in a topknot or in the shape of a bow, often softened by curls on the forehead or at the nape especially in the northwest. Fillets or bands tied on the forehead were common. Young men had begun to cut their hair short and adopted a short-skirted tunic with their antariya. The Scythian pointed cap was frequently used as was the crown or mukuta. The common man moved around bare-headed or used his kayabandh or uttariya to form a casual turban on the head against the sun in almost the same way as is seen today in India.


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Jewellery
In relation to the Mauryan-Sunga period, we noticed a tendency towards greater refinement and simplicity in this period. Gold was much in use and was called hiranya and suvarana, silver was known as rupya, and copper as tamra, and these continued to be for making jewellery. Gold and silver were often encrusted with ratna or jewels. These included carnelians’s, agates, lapis lazuli, amethysts, garnets, coral, and pearls. Sapphires, topaz, diamonds and cat’s - eyes were embedded or sometimes strung in various ways and worn as ornaments.

Besides this, the art of enameling was known, as well as inlay work in shell and mother-of-pearl. Gold beads were beautifully filigreed or filled with lac, while others had cores of jasper and turquoise paste and were strung on thread or wire to be worn as necklaces called kantha, or long ones worn between the breasts known as hara. Stringing coins to be worn as necklaces, called nishka, was in vogue. Foreigners wore the torque, a simple necklace of gold wire. It was a characteristic ornament of the Scythian and Celtic people and was worn as a mark of distinction by the Persian and parthians, all of whom were of the same stock, as were the Sakas and Kushans. Shell and terra-cotta beads continued to be strung and worn by the poorer classes.

The earrings, kundala, were of three types and most often of gold though there is evidence of ivory ones as well. The pendant type often had decorative rosettes and granulation. The ring type, scythian in origin, could be simple with a gold wire wound around or mixture of both types, that is, a ring elaborately decorated with beads as well as bud-like pendants. Of these, the simpler kind was used by men, except for foreigners who are depicted as wearing none. Armlets were known as keyura and bracelets as valaya. Both men and women wore these. Those for women were often made thick or thin sheets of gold with hinged clasps, and elaborately ornamented and inlaid. Simple bangles of glass, shell, or ivory were also used. Head ornaments were varied. As the turban and head veils of women went out of fashion they were replaced by a bejewelled diadem or crown called mukuta, or a simple fillet or headband called opasa. These were used in addition to the garlands of flowers, sraja, which remained popular. Gold or silver hairpins with attractively ornamented heads held up hair. Men continued to wear the mauli (turban). The mekhala or girdle was mainly of beads and along with nupura or anklet, was worn only by women. This was simpler and lighter than that in the previous period. There is an absence of forehead ornaments like the sitara and bindi of the Mauryan-Sunga period.

Finger rings were of solid god, some plain, others incised with tiny fingers. Ivory was used extensively to make combs, brooches, hairpins, boxes and other objects.


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Military Costume
It is in the military dress of the Mauryan-Sunga period we find the earliest traces of foreign influence on indigenous garments. At the Ghandhara site of Kushans is a soldier of Mara’s (Apollo’s) army wearing the Indian antariya and turban with a Graeco-Roman style of breastplate or coat of mail. Coats of mail are said to have been, made indigenously of metallic wires, probably iron, woven into a gauze known as jalaka. But the soldier’s coat of mail appears to be made of metal scales, attached to a backing, rather than woven wire. This could be a foreign-influenced improvement on the indigenous equipment for soldiers. Another soldier is seen wearing full foreign garments in the same army. His coat of mail is worn over a short tunic, which is visible at the hem and sleeves, and his bare legs are encased in greaves. On his head is a three-cornered helmet, which suggests the well-known whitish grey felt cap of the Tibetans and Khorezmians.

Khorez, Bactria, and Sogdiania in Central Asia, had at one time been some of the most important cultural centres of the ancient world. They were later taken over by the Persians, Greeks and then the Kushans. The third soldier in this army of Mara wears the purely Indian antariya and has his uttariya wound around his waist. All three soldiers carried shields and equipment’s of various kinds. Foot soldiers are said to have used six-foot bows with very long arrows, tall shields made of undresses ox hide, and board swords three men carried smaller shields and were equipped with two lances each, but rode without saddles.


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Religious Persons
Brahmin hermits or ascetics continued to wear garments made of bark leaves, or animal skins, and live austere lives in forests or other isolated places. The clothes of the bhikshu continued to be yellow or red in color and consisted of same antaravasaka, uttarasanga, samghati and kushalaka as before, along with a buckled belt or samkaksika. Only now the cloth of their garments was most probably donated to the monastery by wealthy merchants, and was not made of rags. The sign of physical and spiritual perfection in the Buddha figures is the protuberance or ushnisa on the head, which evolved from the top knot worn by Brahmins. Another symbol is the urna or tuft of hair between the eyebrows, representing the third eye. The elongated ear lobes are yet another sign of perfection.


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Textiles and Dyes
For the first time trade with China was directly established through the ancient silk route. Indian traders settled down in Chinese Turkestan, which was annexed by Kanishka, the Kushan King. This included Kashgar, Khotan, and Yarkhand. Buddhists missions too were sent to china. In Rome, Augustus encouraged trade with India and exports increased resulting in a flourishing merchant class. In the northwestern is coarse cotton and wool were used for making tunics and trousers for horsemen, hunters, foreigners, and doorkeepers. In central India textiles were of lightweight cotton, tulapansi. Both indigenous and foreign skills were plentiful but still very expensive.

Antariya were very rarely decorated and when they were, they appear to have been either embroidered, woven, or printed in diagonal check designs enclosing small circles. Turban cloth for rich women were often diagonally striped with every third line made of pearls. This bejewelled material was also used to cover beds and seats. Many other geometric patterns of checks, stripes and triangles were also printed and woven. It is only from literary sources that we know of the textiles and dyes available in the earlier period. There is no evidence of actual fabrics being made in India before the twelfth or thirteenth century. But a large variety of fabrics were recovered from the burial grounds along the silk route, which can be dated to between the first century BC and the second century AD (Han Period in China). Based on this evidence we may presume that the dyes and textiles of Chinese origin available along this route would surely have found their way into India. Hence, it is possible to maintain that many of the patterns and colors would be similar, or had influenced indigenous fabrics. We know for a fact that the beautiful ultra-marine and lapis lazuli blue were sent along the trade route from the famous mines at Badakshan in Central Asia. There is, in addition, much literary evidence of sophistication of Indian textiles from the earliest times.

In a list compiled of fabrics recovered from the ancient silk route, fabrics in the following color were found: bright blue, light blue, dark blue-copper, dull gold buff, bronze-brown, dark bronze-green, crimson, pink, crimson brown, rich red, yellow, yellow-brown, yellow-green, rich dark yellow-brown. These are all variants and mixtures of the colors in dyes that were available in India in this period.


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Style
The Kushan influence was felt in what developed into the Gandhara art and the art of Mathura which, while retaining the massive scale of Bharut and Sanchi, had carvings more sophisticated and images more flamboyant and sensuous than had been seen before. It is an if in the provocative display of courtesans with their sinuous bodies in the tribhanga pose and the delicate flower-like gesture of the hands, the foreigners had found aspects of the Indian experience that fired their imagination.

In the same period, however there are the wall paintings at Kizil in Afghanistan, where the wiry line of the drawing with its flat brilliant colors dominated by lapis-lazuli gives a heraldic appearance, static and frozen, like the group of portrait statues found at Mathura. The latter have the still, formal depiction of the Kushan Kings, showing in complete detail the kind of heavy garments they wore. The Kushans were not originally an artistic people. Of Scythian origin, their only expression had been the metal work displayed in their horse trappings, hunting gear, and in the ornamental plaques, which they stitched on their garments.

But they had lived for many years in Bactria before entering India and this prepared them for the role they were to play as great patrons of the arts, as seen in the development of the Gandhara art and the evolution of the indigenous art of Mathura. Later, both these styles fused to create the Renaissance of Gupta Art.


COURT LADY [Begram]

Antariya : worn extremely short in kaccha style; the end that is passed between the legs has been tucked in at the back; the other piece is looped to mid-thigh in front and the end tucked in a small looped frill at the centre

Kayabandh : there are two : one is a wide sash tied in a loop on both sides to the knees with steamers at each side of the hips hanging to floor length; the other is kakshyabandha, a thick jewelled roll worn aslant which has a large clasp at the left hip

Mekhala : five-stringed pearl or jewelled hip belt, it holds the antariya and cloth kayabandh in place

Hara : necklace of pearls, probably strung on thread or wire and worn between the breasts

Kantha : Short necklace of beads with central pendant and looped chains

Keyura : simple armlets, of looped design in gold or silver

Valaya : bracelets of two kinds : the central one consists of a series of rings like a wrist band; on both sides are larger rigid bracelets

Kundala : square earrings decorated with a flower motif and with pearls suspended

Nupura : anklets-wide rings with an elaborate design

Anguliya : finger rings of solid gold

Mukuta : bejewelled crown on the head and a head band

Hairstyle : small symmetrical curls at the forehead, hair tied in a looped knot projecting vertically at the back

YAKSHI: FEMALE DOOR - KEEPER[Gandhara]

Antariya : worn in lehnga style, simply wrapped around and tucked in at the left

Uttariya : thrown casually over the shoulders

Tunic : with front opening, held at the neck by button; long ruched sleeves have ruching held by jewelled bands or buttons; tunic is form-fitting

Mekhala : four-stringed girdle with clasp and decorative leaf at the centre

Hara : one long pearl necklace worn between the breasts and one short one with a pendant

Kundala : large ring-type earrings

Head-dress : chaplet of leaves or turban with a central flower worn around the top knot of hair

Sitara : round ornament on the forehead

Mixture of foreign and indigenous costume.



DONOR FIGURE [Mathura]

Antariya : sari-like, tied in front, while one end is passed between the legs, pleated and tucked in at the back, the other end is partly pleated and tucked in at the front, then wound around and worn over the left shoulder

Tunic : Kushan style

Belt : with granulated pattern worn higher than antariya or worn short to waist

Valaya : one bangle on each wrist

Nupura : simple ring-type anklets

Kundala : twisted or suspended disc earrings

Hairstyle : centre parting with long hair looped on one side

Mixture of foreign and indigenous costume. This early form of kachcha-style sari is still used in Maharashtra and parts of South India.



DONOR FIGURE [Gandhara]

Antariya : kachcha style, only the pleated end hanging at the back has been shortened

Uttariya : worn over the left shoulder across the back and under the right arm, then across the chest and taken again over the left shoulder

Kantha : short necklace

Hairstyle : in a double knot at the centre of the head

Purely indigenous style.

SOLDIER[Gandhara]

Antariya : worn in kachcha style

Armour : chain armour made of scale or rhombus-patterned plaques, fastened together with strings (like a Japanese or Tibetan armour); the end of the sleeves, waist and hem are strengthened with cording; the skirt portion is made of parallel rows of rectangular plaques

Mauli : turban made of twisted roll of cloth

Equipment : round shield and spear

This is a mixture of foreign and indigenous costume. The armour is Graeco-Roman.

GUARD[Gandhara]

Antariya : worn in kachcha style up to the ankles

Tunic : knee-length, a fully quilted garment with thick cording at the waist, neck and hem.

Quilted upper garments are still worn in north India in winter. Mixture of foreign and indigenous costume.


FEMALE COURT ATTENDANT[Mathura]

this simple hairstyle is made by parting the hair at the centre, drawing it to the right side and allowing it to hang in a loop at the right shoulder

COURT LADY[Begram]

hair is worn in a tuft at the centre as in the figure of Court Lady (Mathura), curls frame the face; rest of the hair is drawn into a knot which is vertically placed at back centre; a turban has been twisted and wound casually around the hair

NECKLACE[Taxila]

Kantha : short necklace of gold in the spearhead and drop' design


MILK MAID[Mathura]

Ghagri : simple narrow calf-length skirt stitched at the centre-front border, it has either a drawstring through it to is rolled over a string; this is an example of the earliest form of a stitched lower garment for women

kantha : short flat necklace with decorative design

Keyura : armlets of same decorative design as for kantha

Valaya : simple ring-type bangles

Kundala :simple ring-type earrings

She rests her pitcher on a head-rest probably of cane, like an inverted basket.

FEMALE GUARD[Gandhara]

Tunic : Kushan type with long ruched sleeves

Antariya : could be chalana-Kushan loose trousers

Kayabandh : twisted sash

Hara : long necklet worn between the breasts

Valaya : three bangles are visible on the right hand

Nupura : heavy ring-type anklets

Hairstyle : hair at the front is divided into three portions, the central one is made into roll, the two at the side are combed downwards with tassels suspended

She carries a long spear and round embossed shield. A mixture of foreign and indigenous costume.

FEMALE[Gandhara]


Anatriya : sari-like, worn in the kachcha style, the other end being taken across the body and over the left shoulder

Kayabandh : simple sash, twisted in parts

Uttariya : worn across the back and over both shoulders, the left end is loosely tucked in at the waist

Valaya : four bangles on left wrist

Hara : pearl necklace worn between the breasts

Kundala : simple disc-like earrings

Nupura : heavy double rings on the ankles

Hairstyle : chaplet of leaves

Mixture of foreign and indigenous costume.

KING KANISHKA[Mathura]

Tunic : calf-length and heavy quilted, with braid at the bottom edge

Chugha : a coat which is longer than the tunic, worn open at centre front; it has a decorative braid at the centre front and hem with probably long gathered-up sleeves

Belt : of metallic decorative plaques

Boots : padded, with straps around ankle and under the boot held together by a decorative clasp; either the boots are calf length or baggy trousers (chalana) have been inserted into short boots

This is the dress of Kushan for foreigner of Saka-Parthian origin. He holds two swords in decorative scabbards.

KUSHAN KING[Mathura]

Chugha : calf-length with a wide richly embroidered border down the centre-front opening, hem and edge of long sleeves (probably ruched); the material of the coat has small rosettes and a V-neck and there is a round motif on the right sleeve

Tunic : Kurta-like undergarment visible at the neck

Chalana : baggy trousers tucked into calf-length padded boots; there is a wide band of vine pattern at the centre from toe to top (not visible in drawing); straps around the ankle and instep

Kantha : short necklace with pendant

Purely foreign costume of Scythic origin.

SOLDIER[Gandhara]

Antariya : transparent calf-length and worn in the lehnga style

Armour : scale armour with V-neck and short sleeves; the skirt portion is of square-linked design and of mid-thigh length

Tunic : Visible at the hem and sleeves

Equipment : sword belt with flat, short sword; strap across the chest, probably for quiver; round shield with patterned design

Mauli : turban wound several times and tied at the right side

Mixture of foreign and indigenous costume

COURT LADY[Mathura]

a tuft of hair covers the line of parting; it has been to form a ball; rest of the hair is drawn back, looped and held in position by a clip or brooch


COURTIER[Gandhara]

Mauli : turban worn simpler than in the previous period: no intertwining of the hair with the cloth; decorated with some clasps in front;there is also a decorative ring at the top through which a string of pearls is passed and attached to the sides


EARRING[Taxila]

Kundala : of gold 'leech and pendant' type; the ring or leech attaches itself to ear and the pendant bud is suspended by a movable ring with granulation's.

DONOR FIGURE[Mathura]

Mauli : turban of rich material is surmounted by twisted rolls of cloth from the centre of which the pleated end is visible in a decorative fan shape; a band is used crosswise to give shape to the turban
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Early Satavahana [200-100 B.C.]

History and Social Life
The Satavahana or Andhra empire was the next great empire after the Mauryan, and was established in the Deccan just as the Mauryan empire was coming to an end. It endured for 460 years in unbroken continuity and ran parallel, for a while to the Kushan Empire with which it struggled for almost a century. On the whole, it was a peaceful and economically prosperous period and trade and industry increased tremendously, especially with Rome. The Romans brought in a continuous flow of Roman gold, which helped to raise the level of economic life and changed the pattern of urban life a great deal.

Racially, the early people of the Deccan were hybrid race, a mixture of aboriginal Dravidians (or pre-Dravidians) and Scythians (Sakas), Parthians (pahlavas), and Greeks (Yavanas). Buddhism and Mauryan culture had built up a civilized structure even before the Satavahanas established their empire. In the third century AD the Satavahanas were ousted by the Ikshvakus, who were themselves from the Deccan.

The Royal Way of Life
From as early as the Mauryan-Sunga period there was six emblems to denote a royal personage. These were the ushnisa or turban, a pair of flywhisks, umbrella, sword, sandals, and the royal standard. Of these, the two most important and almost always used on all formal occasions were the umbrella and the flywhisks. The umbrella was white and gold for kings and nobles, and was carried by the chattradhara or umbrella carrier. The flywhsiks or Chauri were made of yak tails with gold handles, usually two, which were waved alternately by the chauri bearers. In addition to this a fan of palm leaves gaily chequered and made of bark, usira grass, or peacock feathers was waved by another attendant.

The sword or khadga, a symbol of power, was carried by a female attendant, the khadgavahini, on her shoulder. She normally stood close behind the king or prince. Thonged sandals originally of boarskin were the king’s prerogative. Both sword and sandals were said to rule the kingdom in the absence of the king.


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Early Satavahana [200-100 B.C.]
Costume
The people of the Deccan were a hybrid race, a mixture of the aboriginal Dravidians and foreign invaders. In the first century BC their costumes too were an interesting mixture of foreign and indigenous garments. All these clothes are represented in Caves IX and X in Ajanta.

In the first Century BC we find tunics, Kancuka in the stripes or beehive design worn by attendants or hunters. The kancuka are of mid-thigh length with short or long sleeves; in some the opening is on the left side, and in others it is at the front. The tunic worn by a king in hunting dress has no discernible opening at the neck, so it is probably at the back. Necklines too differed in that some were V-shaped and others were round in shape. With the tunic a thick Kayabandh was wound once or twice around the waist. An elaborate turban ushnisa, intertwined with the long black hair of the aborigine wearers was also worn. In addition to these, hunters wore two-bar type sandals with a strap for buckling, which is still seen in the Deccan. As influences from the north and from foreign invaders percolated, the Dravidians aboriginal village women too changed their costume using short antariyas, large uttariyas with elaborate board borders covering the head and back, tikkas on the forehead and a series of conch or ivory bangles on the arms. Except for the skirt, they looked very much like the Lambadis who are a gypsy tribe of Deccan today.

In the royal court dress of the Mauryan-Sunga people the female attendant wore transparent long antariyas with loose kayabandhs tied in a knot at the centre having beautiful ornamental tips. Their many –stringed girdles or mekhala were made of beads. Shoulder-length hair held by fillets or top knots tied at the centre of the head seems to denote that these attendants were foreigners, although nothing in the garments worn seems foreign. The king and most of his courtiers wore indigenous antariya, short and informal at home, with the longer style worn in a variety of ways on ceremonial occasions. With this the decorative kayabandh was tied in different styles and knots. The kayabandh could be tied like a thick cord or be worn looped in a semi-circle at the front with conspicuous side tassels, or be made of thick twisted silk. The ushnisa was always worn and a crown or tiara was used when necessary.

Headgear and Hairstyles
The aboriginal jungle women wore rolls and headbands with peacock feathers attached. Village women and commoners wore their hair in a simple knot at the nape covered by a large uttariya, which, at times, had elaborate broad borders. Court attendants and women of the richer classes wore their hair more fashionably, either in a topknot on the right side with a loop of flowers suspended or in a plait. A fillet, simple or gold embroidered could be worn to hold it in place.

Most often, the long hair of men was worn intertwined with lengths of cloth to form an ushnisa in a variety of ways. Frequently it had a knot - the original top knot of the aboriginal-covered with the cloth of the turban. This knot could be at centre front or protrude over the forehead in a conch-shell shape, or the tuft of hair could be visible on top of the turban.

Jewellery
Jewellery in this period had a massive primitive character in strong contrast to that worn in the later Satavahana period. When indigenous garments are shown on men, whether at court or in villages, all wear some form of jewellery. But when the foreign dress, the kancuka or tunic, is worn by hunters, attendants and soldiers, very little or no jewellery is seen. Most often it consists of just earrings of the wheel pattern type.

Indigenous jewellery however, consisted of Lambanam, earrings, and a pair of kangan and bajuband for the males. Women did not wear the baju band but wore a large number of bangles made of conch or ivory, disc-type earrings, the lambanam, and tikka on the forehead. Women attendants at court wore, in addition, the mekhala.

Military Costume
Soldiers wore short-sleeved tunics or jackets, with elaborate headgear consisting of either a turban with a topknot, chin band and earflaps or two topknots with a turban. They were equipped with axes, and bows and arrows, or carried sickles. Palace guards however wore the antariya with a heavy cloak draped over the left shoulder.


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Late Satavahana [100 B.C - A.D. 250]
Costume
Clothing was generally spares and made of thin cotton. The three articles of clothing, the antariya, uttariya and kayabandh were widely used, but interesting mixtures of foreign and indigenous garments were fairly prevalent.

The uttariya for both men and women was usually white and of cotton or silk. It was however, at times, of beautiful colors and embroidered. Men could wear it across the back and over both shoulders are merely thrown over the chest, and they seldom wore it as a head covering. The antariya was still worn by both sexes in the kachcha fashion, which meant that one end was passed between the legs and tucked in behind, but this way of draping had its own fanciful fashions. For men it was normally to the knees or even shorter. Generally, the antariya appeared to have been made of almost transparent cloth and was worn very tight and clinging in the case of women. It is almost invisible in the early Andhra sculptures with only double incised lines to show the drape. The nivi bandha or preliminary knot to tie the antariya at the waist is often alluded to in the literature of ancient India.

The kayabandh tied in a bow-shaped knot was worn by both sexes to give further support to the uttariya at the waist. This item was worn in a variety of ways. The kayabandh in the form of a simple sash was called the vethaka. The women also wore the pattika, which was made of flat ribbon-shaped pieces of cloth, usually silk. A heavy-looking thick jewelled roll with hanging tassels-kakshyabandha-was worn by men. The kalabuka was a girdle made of many strips plaited together, and the muraja had drum-headed knots at the ends instead of tassels.

It is in the distinctive ways of wearing these three simple garments the antariya, uttariya and kayabandh and in the headgear and jewellery, that we can trace the evaluation of costumes and the fashion of the times in areas of India where they were in use. The true yajnopavita or sacred thread is found on the sculptures of this period. Before this, it existed more in the form of the uttariya worn draped over the left shoulder and under the right arm in the upavita fashion from which the term yajnopavita consisted of three cotton threads each of nine twisted strands, but of hemp for the kshatriya and of wool for the vaisya. At a later stage this sacred thread continued to be used in a limited way by other castes but was retained most strongly by the Brahmins.

A stitched skirt-like foreign garment called the kancuka was frequently used by attendants, grooms, guards and so on in the king’s court, and an indigenous long tunic was worn by eunuchs and other attendants in the women’s apartments in the palace. Women too wore the short kancuka with an indigenous antariya, or when calf-length it was worn with a kayabandh and uttariya, and in many other ways.

Headgear and Hairstyles
The ushnisa of the men was generally wrapped around three or four times after covering the topknot of hair with one end. It was normally white but could also be of dyed cloth, and simple turbans were held in position by ornamental gold strips or pattabandha. Gold turbans were worn on special occasions. Kirta or crowns were also in use, of which one type was a short cylindrical cap studded with gems and ornamented with designs. The maulibandha was an elaborated turban wound with the hair which itself was decorated with strings of pearls or flowers wreaths. The turban normally covered the hair, which was arranged in a large topknot at centre front, and could have jewelled clasp or maulimani at the centre to hold in place the folds of the turban. This topknot could also be pear-shaped or elliptical to give it variety. Without the turban, the hair could be worn in one or two topknots, or one loop and one topknot. Short hair parted in the middle and reaching the neck was fairly prevalent, especially among the common people.

Women wore their hair in several ways. One was in the form of a plait, praveni, at the back, decorated with jewelled strips and tassels, as Bharat Natyam dancers do today. Another common style was the coil with five delicate plaits dangling from it, a favourite with all classes of women. In the kesapasa style the hair was looped close to the head in an elongated knot at the back of the head or lower downs at the nape. This could have veni, a small fillet of flowers, around it or a short garland of flowers dangling from it. If the hair was made in a simple knot it was known as kabaribandha. The dhammilia was elaborate dressing of the hair with flowers, pearls, and jewels that often completely covered the hair like a close cap or turban. This style was greatly admired in the Satavahana kingdom.

Women no longer wore the turban of earlier periods. Special ornaments were designed to be worn in the hair. The chudamani was lotus-shaped, its petals composed of pearls and precious stones. It was worn normally in the centre of the knotted hair. The makarika was shaped like fish-crocodile and worn at the front parting of the hair, very like gold ornament worn by the uriya women in the northern circars. There were also small crown like fillets through which the hair was drawn and then plaited or hung loose.

Jewellery
Strands of pearls were the main motif in all forms of jewellery particularly in the late period of the Satavahana empire. Both men and women wore earring, bracelets, armlets and necklaces as in previous periods, particularly the indigenous people. The more common design in earring was the kundala shaped like a coil, which could be simple or decorative. The talapatra originated from a small strip of palm leaf rolled and inserted into the lobe. This shape was later made from ivory or gold and could be gem-studded. A full-blown lotus design the kanaka- kamala set in rubies is still popular in South India, and a couple of generations ago the karnika or jimiki continued to be in use. This was in the shape of lotus seed-pod fixed upside down like a tassel. Necklaces or hara were mainly strung with pearls, sometimes consisting of only a single string called ekavali. A necklace of gems and gold beads was called yashti, the central bead being often larger than the others. Several of these necklaces could be worn together. Sometimes three or five slab-like gems, phalaka, were inserted at regular intervals. These held together the several strings of which a necklace was composed, and whole was called a phalakahara.

A simple perfumed cotton-thread necklace was known to have been in use, and tiger claws were strung around the necks of children probably to ward off the evil eye. The yajnopavita, or a sacred thread made of pearls called the muktayajnopavita, were prevalent. Kantha, the shorter form of necklace, continued to be in use and was often of gold set with rubies and emeralds. Also, the gold - coins necklace nishka strung on silk thread or plaited gold cord was worn in almost the same design as the modern putalya of Maharashtra and the malai of Tamil Nadu. These gold coins were sometimes replaced by mango-shaped pieces of gold or gold set with gems, like the contemporary mangamalai of South India. Men and women wore bracelets valaya of solid gold set with precious stones. The more delicate ones were made of filigree, and elegant rope-shaped ones of fine gold wire were worn generally by women. They also used bangles of ivory and rhinoceros horn. Slab-like gems when set into bracelets, like the phalakahara necklace, were called phalakavalaya.

Armlets or keyura for both sexes were close-fitting and could be engraved or set with jewels, or be in the shape of a snake; also they could be straight-edged or have an angular top edge. Jewelled girdles of one or many strings, mekhala, were worn only by women. These were made in several varieties from the tinkling kanci with bells to the rasana style made of a linked chain or strung with pearls, beads or precious stones. These girdles, besides being very attractive, held up the lower garment or antariya. In addition, cloth girdles or kayabandh like those of the men described earlier in this chapter, were also used for the same purpose.

Anklets, worn again only by women, had an astonishing variety. The manjira was hollow and light, coiling several times around the ankles loosely, and tinkling when in motion as it had gems inserted in the hollow. This type is still worn in Manwar. The nupura was plain while the kinkini had small bells suspended. A heavier looking one was the tulakotiI whose two ends were enlarged at their meeting point. This form is still worn in Andhra. Tinkling anklets of any kind were not worn by the wife in the absence of her husband. The finger ring or anguliyaka is visible on some of the Satavahana sculptures but only after A.D.150

The hemavaikasha was an ornament worn by women, seen more frequently in the Kushan period. It consisted of two long wreaths of flowers of pearls crossed at the breasts.

Military Costume
Andhra soldiers wore an antariya which was shortened by lifting it at the hemline and tucking it into the waist to facilitate marching, and the style is still used in Tamil Nadu. A cloth sash or kayabandh was wound tightly many times around the waist for support and was sometimes crossed at the chest for protection. This developed in later times into the Channavira, which was similar in function to the early Babylonian and Assyrian sword belts crossed at the chest with a metal buckle in the centre. In addition, the military personnel of this period occasionally wore earring and simple jewellery.

Saka foreign soldiers were employed by some of the Andhra kings in the royal bodyguard. They wore a heavy tunic with ruched sleeves which reached to the knees or mid-thigh. With it was worn a form of churidar or ruched trousers, and their helmet or sirastra had earflaps. A wide sash was worn at the waist. Sometimes a short quilted tunic was worn with a heavy drape over the left shoulder along with a turban-a mixture of the foreign and indigenous garment. Footwear was not incumbent for soldiers and was probably worn by foreign rather than indigenous troops.

The equipment of a trained fighter was mainly his sword, shield, bow, axe and spear; sometimes the mace, club, and javelin were used. Swords were either curved or straight and could have sharp edge on one or both sides. There were 30 inches long and beautiful crafted. Handles of Ivory or horn and hilts of precious metals encrusted with jewels were carried by those in command, and simpler ones of bamboo or wood were used by the common soldier. These swords in their sheaths, kosha, of fine-tooled leather were normally fastened on the left side of the waist. Smaller and more ornamental swords and draggers were fastened by gold chains.

Shields, mainly rectangular in shape, were purely functional and large enough to protect the body. The club or gada could be short or long but was immensely heavy and was used for striking the enemy forcefully. The bow or dhanush made of wood or horn was painted red and gaily decorated, but the bamboo bow was more common. The bowstring was made of sinew or hemp. The heads of arrows were of iron, bone, and wood and were carved into animal and other shapes, and had shafts of feathers affixed with sinews. Sometimes the arrow tips were dipped in poison.

Religious Persons
The Buddhist monks were now in a very powerful position and had more or less abjured their vow of poverty. Their clothes now retained a semblance of patchwork but were composed of rich pieces of cloth of same color, symmetrically arranged together in checks, and most probably presented to the Buddhist order by rich donors, as referred to in the jatakas.

Hindu ascetics continued to wear their bark strip garments valkala with a deerskin over the left shoulder in the style know as ajinayajnopavita. Their hair was tied in a heavy bundled topknot of matted locks called jata-bhara and sometimes the hair was worn in small plaits. The priests were Brahmins who wore white garments but added a red turban when officiating at ceremonial functions.

Jain monks and nuns have retained their white robes to this day and all their beliefs and customs have remained unchanged because of their strong conservatism.

Textiles and Dyes
From Mauryan times and even earlier, the manufacture of textile in India had flourished and there are constant references to its variety in Brahmanical, Buddhist and Jain works. Coarse and fine varieties of cotton were in great demand. Silk formed an important part of rich person’s wardrobe. A very cheap material made of hemp was worn by the weavers and by labourers of all kinds. Wool was not need much in the part of India ruled by Satavahanas, which had a warm climate, but it was used in the form of chaddars or blankets in winter.

There was a variety of Dyes available from Vedic times, indigo, yellow, crimson, magenta, black and turmeric. Since washermen were also dyers, these colors were known to them and the knowledge of the dyeing processes was probably handed down to each successive generation. Varieties and mixtures of colors known to those countries with which the Satavahanas did a great deal of trade, like China, Persia and Rome, must also have been incorporated to extend their range of colored textiles.

Printed and woven designs on textile were plentiful and embroidery in gold was also common among the richer classes. The uttariya, in particular, was very often of silk and embroidered with flowers all over, or had a pattern of birds along with flowers. Precious stones were often used in the borders of these uttariyas or they were dyed blue or red, but a spotless white remained the favourite with men.

Style
The late Satavahanas style expressed more directly the full impact of the Dravidians-Andhra ethos. With the crowded compositions of lean and strong bodies and the ferocious figures looming over terrified crowds, we feel a sense of frenzied activity and turbulence. The kayabandhs make complex arabesques, but there is less differentiation between the court and the people as they throng together.


VILLAGE WOMAN [Ajanta, Cave X]

Antariya : Lower cloth, calf length, of fine cotton with fluted ends in front, worn in kachcha style, that is between the legs.

Uttariya : Upper cloth of printed cotton worn crosswise on the head.

Kayabandh : Embroidered flat cloth band, pattika style, worn in a looped knot with fringed ends.

Mekhala : Six-stringed hip belt of gold or silver beads.

Lambanam : long necklace made of chains held at intervals by flat bands, phalakahara style.

Kantha : Short necklace of five strings of beads in gold or silver.

Karnika : Trumpet-shaped earrings.

Kangan : Ten bracelets adorning each hand.

Baju Band : Decorative armlets worn on upper arms.

Kara : Anklets of twisted wire worn on both ankles.

Sitara : Star shaped forehead ornament of gold or silver with a stamped pattern.

NAGA KING [Ajanta, Cave IX]

Kantha : broad and flat short necklace with four pendant pieces (base-metal)

Karnika : large cylindrical earring with a decorative design (base metal)

Kangan : heavy and cylindrical bracelets (base metal)

Baju Band : thick cylindrical armlets with pendant pieces (base metal)

Head-dress : turban is twisted around the head and held with a decorative band; hair is long, as worn by aboriginal, and is arranged in a topknot and five crests with ribbons like serpents' hoods

Prince [Amravati, 1st period]

Antariya : worn in kachcha style to below the knees; the stripes indicate the folds of the drape

Kayabandh : kakshyabandha style, a thick roll worn aslant at the hips with beautiful ornamental tips and tied in large loop-knot

Belt : with granulated pattern worn higher than antariya



COURTIER [Ajanta, Cave X]

hair is brought forward in a 'conch-shell' knot and decorated; the fillet is probably used to keep it in place; earrings are disc-type and necklace is of the phalakahara style with chains held at intervals by flat pieces

NAGA PRINCE [Ajanta, Cave IX]

hair is arranged in a large top knot at the centre with the turban wound around the head after twisted it around the knot, a brooch decorates the centre of the top knot; earrings are of the double disc-type; necklace, bracelets are made of base metal, and are probably hollow

WOMAN [Amravati, 4th period]

Ghagri : gathered calf-length skirt probably with a drawstring at the waist

kayabandh : simple vethaka style, but longed and wound several times around the waist

Uttariya : wrapped loosely around the hips and draped over the left arm

valaya : several bangles of ivory or rhinoceros horn

Kundala : ring-type earrings

Manjira : hollow light anklets, coiling twice around and probably making a tinkling sound in movement

Hairstyle : drawn back into a simple knot at the nape


PRINCE [Goli]

Antariya : falling to the ankles, worn in kachcha style with pleats tucked in at the back and visible in the front between the legs

Kayabandh : twisted rope-like around the waist, then twisted twice to form a knot at the right hip; the other end suspended in front ends in two ornamental tips

Belt : ornamental belt

Kantha : three of different sizes worn together to form a collar

Keyura : flat and decorative armlets

Kundala : ring-type earring

Valaya : three bracelets on each hand of some heavy metal or bone and incised with patterns

Kundala : ring-type earrings with tassels suspended

Headgear : an ornamental disc worn in front of jatta or knot of hair

ATTENDANT [Nagarjunakonda]

Kancuka : probably calf-length, it has a gathered neckline with a band and long sleeves decorated with a braid in stripes

Uttariya : heavy and long, draped formally across the chest and around the left shoulder

Kayabandh : heavy, wound twice around the waist

headgear : turban with a fan-shaped frill

Probably a master of ceremonies, he carries a staff

MALE [Ajanta, Cave X]

Ushnisa : turban tied casually in a knot with one end going down the other up

Kundala : suspended disc-type earrings

FEMALE [Ajanta, Cave X]

Kirita : a crown-like headgear with semi-circular motifs in front and larger lotus petal designs at the back

Kundala : large ring-type earrings

BUDDHA [Goli]

Antariya : worn in lehnga style almost up o ankle length

Uttariya : wide upper cloth draped across the body to form folds and resting on the left arm

Hairstyle : in top knot

This depiction of the Buddha on his way to Yashodara, his wife. The Uttariya could be the large chaddar used when travelling.


COURT ATTENDANT [Ajanta, Cave X]

Antariya : of sheer cotton

Kayabandh : narrow pattika tied in a bow at the front of the waist

kantha : phalakahara style necklace

Karnika : simple disc-type earring called dehri

Kangan : both granulated and plain seen on the left arm

Hairstyle :centre parting, hair hanging loose to the shoulders and decorated with ornamental chains.

Sitara: large disc at the forehead, either painted or affixed

she carries a fan typical of the times.

KING AS HUNTER [Ajanta, Cave X]

Kancuka : mid-thigh length with round neck and short magyar-type sleeves

Kayabandh : wide, worn wrapped around the waist a couple of times and tucked in

Ushinsa : turban cloth wound with hair and twisted into a top knot; the rest of the cloth is then wound around the head

Karnika : ring-like earrings, kundala type

Although not visible, a short langoti type antariya is worn.

ATTENDANTS [Ajanta, Cave X]

attendant on the left wears her hair parted at the left and hanging loosely to the shoulders, her earrings are of the pendant type; the one on the right is the umbrella brearer or chhatradhar, she wears her hair held back by a fillet and made into a top knot

The umbrella carrier was usually a woman. the umbrella was normally a colored one with a handle of gold workmanship, a white one being the emblem of the king alone.


SOLDIERS [Ajanta, Cave X]

Kancuka : mid-thigh length tunic with short sleeves

Uttariya : tied around the neck to free the arms

Karnika : disc-type earrings called dehri

ushnisa : turban twisted around and through double topknot of hair

They are carring a kind of spear in their hands

SOLDIERS [Ajanta, Cave X]

Kancuka : both have short-sleeved tunics with round necks, the neck opening is obviously at the back

Karnika : Kundala or ring-type earrings

Hairstyle : simple top knot at the centre of the head very like that worn by the hiimen of South Manipur and Burma called the Chins

They carry battle axes.

KING [Nagarjunakonda]

Antariya : falling to the ankles, worn in kachcha style with pleats tucked in at the back and visible in the front between the legs

Kayabandh : elaborately rolled and twisted at the waist, falling in graceful loops at the sides with one rope-like loop in front

Belt : ornamental belt

Kantha : short necklace

Keyura : straight-edged armlets with pressed or filigree decoration

Kundala : ring-type earring

Valaya : simple bangles at the wrists

Hairstyle : loose to the shoulders with a small fringe at the forehead

Headgear : an ornamental disc attached to a head band or top knot

PRINCE [Nagarjunakonda]

Antariya : worn in kachcha style and spread out after tucking in at the back, in double fish-tail style; the little frills in the front could be just a puff of the antariya pulled out at the waist over the nada

Kayabandh : rolled twice at the waist, then looped in the front so that the two ends are worn loosely spread out as a frill at each side

Kantha : collar-like necklace

Hairstyle : in top knot



CHATTRADHARA : UMBRELLA BEARER [South India]

Antariya : ends a little above the ankles; kachcha style, with the pleated ends passed between the legs and tucked in at the back centre

Kancuka : fork-length tunic with long sleeves and round neckline

Kayabandh : simple sash vethaka style, tied at the back with hanging ends

Umbrella : white with gold work on the handle

Hairstyle : simple, worn hanging loose at the back


PRINCE [Nagarjunakonda]

long hair is drawn up into several twisted loops held by two twisted coils, the shorter hair being allowed to hang loose around the face

BUDDHA [Goli]

Antariya : worn in lehnga style

Uttariya : the upper cloth has a border and is worn in an interesting drape on the left shoulder and hangs at the back loosely to fork length

Hairstyle : in top knot

This depiction of the Buddha as preacher gives an idea of the type of clothes worn by those Buddhist monks who travelled and preached both in India and abroad. The color of their garments was reddish-yello and no jewellery was worn

DVARPALA : DOOR-KEEPER [Nagarjunakonda]

Kancuka : knee-length tunic of heavy cloth with long ruched sleeves and gathered neckline

Churidar : narrow ruched trousers

Kayabandh : wound several times around the waist

Headgear: helmet with peaked top called sirastra, some times with ear flaps

Torque : necklace of twisted wire
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Mauryan and Sunga Periods [321-72 B.C.] -
Chandragupta Maurya lived in considerable state. In the processions held on festive occasions, elephants decked in gold and silver, four horsed chariots and yokes of oxen took part...
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History and Social Life
This age witnessed the emergence of India’s first great empire. When Alexander entered the Punjab just before the establishment of the Mauryan Empire, it was with the view to develop its immense commercial resources. Trade with Babylon had long been established. As such, there were many cultural crosscurrents between China, Persia, and India. Alexander founded trading posts all along his course, and left behind Greek colonists who finally intermarried with the Indians. Chandragupta Maurya himself married a princess from the Greek Seleucid Court.

Chandragupta Maurya lived in considerable state. In the processions held on festive occasions, elephants decked in gold and silver, four horsed chariots and yokes of oxen took part. In the towns people dressed in flowered muslin embroidered with jewels. The palaces are said to have been truly luxurious, with great pillared rooms of state, like those in Iran, the golden pillars decorated with embossed vine leaves and silver birds. These palaces were set in lovely parks full of shady trees, many of which had been imported to give variety, and boating as a sport was popular on artificial lakes full of fish.

This was an age of plenty, even for the poor, as the fields were fertile, the basic crops being rice, barley, wheat, millet, and sugarcane. Metals including gold and silver were mined. The state gave the people security and protection, maintained roads, and provided reservoirs and wells. All this helped to create a sense of well-being in the populace. Cattle breeding was as important during the Vedic Age as it is now, and in addition to milk products provided skin, leather, horn, hair and wool which were used in various crafts.

Trade was carried on by ships through the ports along the coastline of Maharashtra, the Malabar Coast, the Tamil country, and Bengal. Land routes were expanded to join the Ancient Silk route through Central Asia to China, and large caravans undertook hazardous journeys for the sake of the profits that were to be made by the adventurous.


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Costume
Men and women continued to wear three unstitched garments, as in Vedic times. The main garment was the antariya of white cotton, linen or flowered muslin, sometimes embroidered in gold and precious stones. For men, it was an unstitched length of cloth draped around the hips and between the legs in the kachcha style, extending from the waist to the calf or ankles or worn even shorter by peasants and commoners. The antariya was secured at the waist by a sash or kayabandh, often tied in a looped knot at the center front of the waist. The kayabandh could be simple sash, vethaka; one with drum-headed knot at the ends, muraja; a very elaborate band of embroidery, flat and ribbon-shaped, pattika; or a many-stringed one, kalabuka. The third item of clothing called uttariya was another length of material, usually fine cotton, very rarely silk, which was utilized as a long scarf to drape the top half of the body.

The uttariya was worn in several ways to suit the comforts of the wearer: very elegantly by those at court, who drape it on both shoulders or one shoulder, or diagonally across the chest and casually knotted at the waist, or it could even be worn loosely across the back and supported by the elbows or wrist, and in many other ways according to the whims of the weather. But for the labourer and the craftsman, it was more a practical garment to be tied around the head as protection from sun, or tightly around the waist leaving the hands free for work, or again as a towel to mop the face when sweating. Its uses were endless for the poor sections of the society and for them it would be made of coarse cotton.

Women tied their antariya in different ways. Originally opaque, it later became more and more transparent. A simple small antariya or strip of cloth, langoti was attached to the kayabandh at the center front, and then passed between the legs and tucked in at the back. A longer version of the antariya was the knee-length one, being first wrapped around and secured at the waist, the longer end then pleated and tucked in at the front, and the shorter end finally drawn between the legs, Kachcha style, and tucked in at the waist at the back. Another version, the lehnga style, was a length of cloth wrapped around the hips tightly to form a tabular type of skirt. This was not drawn between the legs in the kachcha style.

The uttariyas of upper-class women were generally of thin material decorated with elaborated borders and quite often worn as a head covering. Their kayabandhs were very similar to those of the men. In addition, they sometimes wore a patka, a decorative piece of cloth attached to the kayabandh in front by tucking in one end at the waist. The patka was made from plaited wool or cotton, twisted yarn or leather, and at times it was also woven.

Although, footwear is often mentioned in Vedic literature there is no sculptural evidence for this period, except in the case of soldiers who wear the Persian boot. It may be because shoes could not be taken inside a stupa or Buddhist temple, that they were not depicted on the sculptures on stupas.

In the more remote villages and jungles, shepherds, hunters and people of similar occupations were mostly aboriginal or belonged to the lowest caste. They generally wore simple unbleached coarse varieties of the cotton antariya and turbans, much the same as we find today, and the practice of tattooing was fairly common. The more primitive tribes who lived in the forest wore garments made from grass (Kusa), skin, and fur.


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Headgear and Hairstyles
Women generally covered their heads with the uttariya, worn straight or crosswise, often resplendent with beautiful borders. The hair, centrally parted, was made into one or two plaits or in a large knot at the back. The uttariya could be worn simply hanging down at the back or secured to the head with a headband, or with one end arranged in a fan at the top of the head. Skullcaps were sometimes worn under or over the uttariya to keep it in place, or at times it could be decorated with a fringe or pendants. Helmets too are seen as headgear for phrygian women who probably wore long-sleeved tunic with tight fitting trousers and a phrygian cap which was conical and had ear flaps. In India, the Amazons wore in addition, the crossed-at-chest belt vaikaksha, with metal buckles, shield, and sword. Women sometimes used turbans of decorated cloth.

As regards male headgear, in the early Maureen period there is no trace of the turban mauli, but in the Sunga period we find great emphasis on this form of male head dress. These were remarkable headdresses in which the hair itself was often twisted into a braid along with the turban cloth. This twisted braid was then arranged to form a protuberance at the front or the side of the head but never at the center top, as only priests could use this style. Over the turban a band was sometimes used to hold it in place. In addition, decorative elements like a jewelled brooch or a jhalar (fringe) could be attached to the turban, or one end folded in pleats and tucked in like a fan.


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Jewellery
From the sculptures we find there was a richness and profusion in the jewellery worn by both men and women. Earlier, it had a massive quality to it and the workmanship was coarse. A little later, with the Sungas, the jewellery became somewhat refined. In the Arthashastra attributed to Kautilya, and in the sculptures of the period we find references which show us that the material used most frequently were gold and precious stones like corals, rubies, sapphires, agates, and crystals. Pearls too were used and beads of all kinds were plentiful including those made of glass. Certain ornaments were common to both sexes, like earrings, necklaces, armlets, bracelets and embroidered belts. Earring or karnika were of three types-a simple ring or circle called Kundala, a circular disc earring known as dehri and earrings with a flower-like shape known as Karnaphul.

Necklaces of two kinds were worn. A short one called Kantha which was broad and flat, usually gold, inlaid with precious stones, and a long one, the lambanam. These chain or bead necklaces were sometimes three-to-seven stringed and were named after the number of strings of which they were composed. At the centre of each string of beads was an amulet for warding off evil forces. Baju band or armlets of gold and silver beads were worn on the upper arm, and were occasionally studded with precious stones. Bracelets called Kangan, very often made of square or round beads of gold, and richly embroidered cloth belts completed the male ensemble. Women, in addition, wore girdle called mekhala, a hip belt of multi-stringed beads, originally made from the red seed kaksha but now made of gold and silver beads, with shapes ranging from round to square and oval. Dancing girls added on to these, chains of gold and silver to which bells were attached. All women wore anklets and thumb and finger rings. The rings were plain and crowded together on the middle joints of the fingers. Anklets were often of gold in this period, though silver was more common. They could be in the form of a simple ring, Kara, a thick chain, sankla, oran ornamental circle with small bells called ghungru.

There is no evidence of nose-rings in the period. Forehead ornaments for women were quite common and worn below the parting of the hair and at the center of the fore-head. These consisted of thin plate of gold or silver stamped in various patterns, as well as a star-shaped sitara and bina. And a tiny ornament called bindi.

The only material evidence we have of a piece of Mauryan jewellery is a single earring found at Taxila dated second century BC which similar to Graeco-Roman and Etruscan Jewellery.


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Military Costume
Sewn garments which had been used by the Persian soldiers were sometimes utilized for military dress by the Mauryans. This consisted of a sleeved tunic with cross straps across the chest to carry the quiver, and a leather belt with sword. The lower garment was more often the Indian antariya rather than the Persian trousers. The headgear was usually the turban or headband, whereas the Persians had worn the pointed cap. The mixture of foreign and indigenous garments is interesting as it shows one of the early phases of evolution in the costumes of Indians. This came about in the colder north, where the Persian garments were more suitable, climatically and functionally, in case of soldiers. Although, coats of mail are mentioned in the Arthshastra there is no visual evidence of it in this period.


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Religious Persons
of the three religions- Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism, it was Hinduism which evolved from early Vedic sources with sacrifice as its main ritual and had as its keepers of religion the Brahmin priests, who belonged to what later came to be the highest category in the caste system as practiced in India. Later in life, a Brahmin man or woman became a sadhu or sanyasin, seeking detachment.

The Brahmanical Sadhu (Sanyasin) was an ascetic who lived either in a hermitage or visited holy places. He wore a shaped kilt-like garment made of strips sewn together, which was tied at the waist with a cord. A short rectangular cloak covered the left shoulder and breast, leaving the right side exposed. The hair and beard were allowed to grow, the former being plaited and arranged in a spiral at the top of the head. He sometimes wore a headdress in the shape of a cap. Women ascetics too wore this cloak and what appeared to be a cap. These garments, often made from leaves or the complete bark of tree, were tied with a cord. Such a bark garment is still worn by the Kumbipatta sect in Orissa. Skins of antelope and goat called ajina were used by anchorites and wild ascetics, muni, as a covering for the chest. Men ascetics did not cut their nails, hair and beard and carried there few possessions on a yoke balanced on the shoulders.

Buddhism, founded by Gautam Buddha, b.fifth century BC, had no caste division. It had a religious order of monks, bhikshu, and nuns, bhikshuni, who set up monasteries where they studied their religion, later leaving to preach and collect alms.

Buddhist monks normally shaved their heads and beards but kept the head covered with a headdress. If unshaven, the hair was worn in a knot on top of the head. Lay brothers wore theirs on the right side of the head. Their dress was the common antariya with an uttariya and a larger chadder, all dyed saffron. Buddhist monks, bhikshu, had few possessions and their clothes were made of rags patched together and dyed red or yellow. These consisted of a lower garment antaravasaka, an upper garment uttarasanga, a cloak samghati, a waist clothe kushalaka, and buckled belt samakaksika. Worn-out leather soles strapped to their feet completed their attire. Their possessions consisted of a patra or begging bowl, a razor, tweezers for removing hair, clippers for cutting toe and finger nails, an ear pick, a tooth pick, gauze for filtering drinking water, a needle, a walking stick, an umbrella, a fan and a bag of medicines.

The third religion Jainsim, was propagated by Mahavira, b. fifth century BC and its main doctrine was ahinsa, non-violence. Later two sects developed-the sky clad (naked) Digamber sect and the white clad Svetamber sect. Both had nuns and monks who functioned as missionaries.

In the Jain monastic order, monks and nuns wore a white costume consisting of a robe and cloak. They covered their nose and mouth with a piece of gauze to ensure they would not inhale even the smallest living organism and so cause its death. Their hair and beard were shaven and most lived the life of missionaries continuously travelling on foot. The Jain ascetics smeared their bodies with mud, took the vow of silence, clothed themselves in skirts made of bark, and carried a stick made of three rods bound together, and an umbrella. They wore brass ring and brass bangles. Their other possessions included a water jug, clay bowl, and pot with spout, broom, hook, portable stool, rosary, and an alms bowl.


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Textiles and Dyes
Weaving of fine and coarse varieties of cloth was well established. Cotton, silk, wool, linen and jute fabrics were readily available. Furs and the better varieties of wool and silk like tussar, called kausheya like Eri or Muga silk of Assam, yellowish in its natural color but when bleached called patrona, were used. Kaseyyaka (High quality cotton or silk) and the bright red woolen blankets of Gandhara were worth a small fortune each. A rain proof woolen cloth was available in Nepal. Resist dyeing and hand printing in a pattern on cloth has been mentioned by Greek visitors to the court of Chandragupta Maurya, as is the Indian glazed cotton cloth which was in common use by 400 BC. Material similar to the khinkhwab (which is the interweaving of silk and gold or silver wires beautiful floral pattern) was in great demand and even exported to Babylon long before the Mauryas.

Cotton, wool and a fabric called karpasa were available in the north in both coarse and fine varieties. There were also fine muslins often embroidered in purple and gold and transparent like later-day material which came to be called shabnam (morning dew). The coarse varieties were used by the populace. Woolen cloth, avika, from the sheep’s wool was either pure white (bleached) or dyed pure red, rose, or black. Blankets or kambala were either made by completing the edges with borders or braids, or woven wool strips were joined together. The process of felting (pressing the fibers together, instead of weaving) was also making known. All varieties of wool were available, coarse for making head-dresses, trappings and blankets for richer class.

Washermen were also dyers, rajaka, and they perfumed garments after washing them. Four primary color were recognized in the dyeing of textiles: red (dyed with safflower and madder), white (through bleaching), yellow (natural color of yarn and saffron), and blue (indigo leaves). Fabrics were also woven in patterns and printed for use as carpets, bedcovers, blankets, and clothes.


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Style
Forceful sculptures carved during the Mauryan-Sunga period in the first century BC in the north at Bharut and Sanchi give us a feeling of superhuman power. The drapery hangs heavy folds and the jewellery is massive and somewhat coarse. Turbans coil and twist with the hair to form protuberances, with serpentine armlets and anklets closing in on strong limbs. The head veils of the woven are voluminous; long-beaded aprons and crossed scarves at he chest suggest fruitful abundance, and necklaces and strings with amulet boxes suspended on the breasts indicate a fear of evil and dark forces around. With the coming of the Sunga dynasty there is greater emphasis on detail in the elaborate jewellery of the women, which is more elegant and finer and adorns the figures seen in soft relaxed postures.


Donor Figure [Bharut]

Antariya : Lower cloth, calf length, of fine cotton with fluted ends in front, worn in kachcha style, that is between the legs.

Uttariya : Upper cloth of printed cotton worn crosswise on the head.

Kayabandh : Embroidered flat cloth band, pattika style, worn in a looped knot with fringed ends.

Mekhala : Six-stringed hip belt of gold or silver beads.

Lambanam : long necklace made of chains held at intervals by flat bands, phalakahara style.

Kantha : Short necklace of five strings of beads in gold or silver.

Karnika : Trumpet-shaped earrings.

Kangan : Ten bracelets adorning each hand.

Baju Band : Decorative armlets worn on upper arms.

Kara : Anklets of twisted wire worn on both ankles.

Sitara : Star shaped forehead ornament of gold or silver with a stamped pattern.

Kuvera Yaksha [Bharut]

Antariya : Kachcha style, both equal ends being taken between the legs after knotting the front; these ends are then held diagonally, fluted and tucked into the waist at the back to hang between the legs up to the ground

Uttariya : upavita fashion, worn across the chest and over the left shoulder

Kayalbandh : muraja style, drum-headed knobs at the ends, tied in a looped knot

Baju Band : armlets with elaborate incised pattern

Kangan : several bracelets on each wrist

Karnika : trumpet-shaped earring or karnaphul

Mauli : turban of printed cloth held by decorative bands wound over the top knot of hair and at the side of the head

Warrior [Bharut]

Antariya : knee-length, worn in kachcha style with fluted end tucked in at centre front

Tunic : one of the earliest depictions of the cut and sewn garment; it has short sleeves and a round neck, full front opening with ties at the neck and waist, and is hip length

Boots : fitting to the knees

Head band : tied at the back over short hair

A broad flat sword with cross straps on the sheath is suspended from the left shoulder.



COURTIER [Bharut]

turban is wound around the long hair tied in a top knot; to fix the turban in place a decorative band has been used; large disc-type earrings and two strings of beads adorn the neck

Necklace [Bharut]

Kantha : short neckalce called tilari (three-stringed); each string consists of graduated peaarls and a central gem

four-stringed : chaulari

five-stringed : paklari

seven-stringed : satlari

Armlets [Patna]

serpentine armlets are of the Achaemenid type and depict the Iranian influence on Indian jewellery of this period; he wears an antariya in the lehnga style, an uttariya and a thick many-stringed kayabandh with knotted ends-kalabuka


YAKSHI [Baranmara]

Antariya : langoti style small strips of cloth drawn between the legs and attached to a cord at the waist.

Uttariya : There are two: one has an embroidered border and is worn crosswise over the head with a jhalar (networking fringe) at the forehead; the other is draped across the back and over both arms.

Kayabandh : Flat cloth band, pattika style, worn in a looped knot.

Mekhala : Four stringed beads hip belt.

Patka : A strip of woven beads tucked in at the front of the waist reaching the ankles

Atkan : bead necklace worn aslanr over the left shoulder and under the right arm

Kangan : five bead bracelets on each wrist

Baju Band : three row of beads on the upper arms

Karnika : trumpet shaped earring

Lambanam : long necklace of beads

Kantha : Short necklace of beads

Sankla : anklets made of thick chains

Donor Figure [Bharut]

Antariya : worn in same style as in the Kuvera Yaksha except that only one long end is tucked in at the back, the other is a finely pleated apron tucked into the centre front of the antariya.

Uttariya : looped at the chest and thrown back over both shoulders.

Kayabandh : embroidered flat cloth band, Pattika style.

Lambanam : phalakahara style necklace.

Baju Band : simple leaf-patterned armlet.

Kangan : three bracelets of beads on each wrist

Karnika : trumpet-shaped earrings, Karnaphul

Mauli : turban in which the long hair and cloth are twisted together, wound around the head and made into a top knot in front, the cloth then continues to be wound around the head and fixed with a separate band.





Donor Figure [Bharut]

Uttariya : printed or woven in a lozenge design in stripes, with a border; it is worn crosswise on the head and thrown back hanging to the waist like pouch

Kantha : short necklace with granulated design

lambanam : in phalakahara style

Hair ornament : jewelled and worn below centre parting of the hair



COURTIER [Bharut]

long hair is twisted into a top knot at the left around which the turban is wound so as to completely cover it, an ornament heart shaped brooch is fixed on the right front and a decorative band visible at the forehead is tied under the turban

Girdle [Bharut]

Mekhala : elaborate seven-stringed saptaki, the two outer strands are square, interspersed with rows of beads across and aslant the hips in gold or hard stone, and are early imitations of the strings of red rati seeds that were originally worn; the pattika, a flat ribbon-shaped embroidered gridle of cloth of gold is also worn

Earring [Bharut]

Karnika : this style of earring in the form of a triratna or triple gem of Buddhist triad, was peculiar to the Buddhist; this symbol was used on necklaces and to decorate soldiers, scabbards and the top of standards